Emulsion Capacity Research Articles

Functional, chemical and organoleptic properties of moi-moi prepared from blends of cowpea (<i>Vigna unguiculata</i>) and sprouted pigeon pea (<i>Cajanus cajan</i>) flours

Moi-moi is a steamed bean paste usually made from cowpea paste blended with seasonings and other ingredients. This study was carried out to evaluate the functional, chemical and sensory properties of moi-moi produced from cowpea and sprouted pigeon pea flour blends. Flours were produced from cowpea and sprouted pigeon pea and blended in the ratios of 100:0, 95:5, 90:10, 85:15, 80:20 and 50:50, where 100% cowpea served as the reference sample. The functional properties of the composite flours, proximate, mineral, and sensory characteristics of the moi-moi were evaluated. Functional properties ranged from 0.67 to 0.69 g/ml for bulk density, 1.33 to 1.70 ml/g for swelling index, 1.80 to 2.03 g/g for water absorption capacity, 1.27 to 1.73 for oil absorption capacity, 40.17 to 46.57 % for emulsion capacity and 30.30 to 34.00 % for foam capacity. Proximate composition results revealed that crude protein, crude fibre, and ash increased while moisture, fat and carbohydrate decreased with increased substitution of cowpea with sprouted pigeon pea. Mineral contents increased with increasing level of sprouted pigeon pea addition with values ranging from 26.30-63.37 mg/100g, 39.00-51.50 mg/100g, 272.00 to330.27 mg/100 g, 14.10 to 43.90 mg/100 g and 413.33-434.13 mg/100g for calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and phosphorous respectively. Sensory analysis revealed that moi-moi produced from 90% cowpea and 10% sprouted pigeon pea flour possessed the best organoleptic properties among the test samples. This study has demonstrated the production potential and nutritional benefits of sprouted pigeon pea complementation in the production moi-moi from cowpea.

Protein structural changes in lentil flour during soaking/germination and thermal treatments: Indication of nutritional and functional properties

Functional characteristics of lentil's protein have a significant impact on texture of developed food products and are an important consideration for ingredient manufacturers in food industries. Soaking/germination and thermal treatments are well-known methods in modifying these characteristics by altering protein structure. Therefore, in this study, the combination of these methods at two heat intensity categories, above and below protein denaturation, was utilized to examine modification of the structural, nutritional, and functional properties of processed lentil flours. The results showed that processing of lentil seeds impacted their protein secondary structure from ordered to disordered structures, by decreasing β-sheet and α-helix and increasing intermolecular β aggregates and random coil conformation. In terms of nutritional value, the applied processing improved lentil flours by higher protein content after germination and enhanced protein digestibility after thermal processing. Generally, protein solubility was negatively affected by thermal conditions, with microwave-infrared drying having the most significant impact on reducing protein solubility. Mostly, the processing did not noticeably affect the emulsifying activity and oil binding capacity, while it significantly reduced emulsifying stability at high-temperature methods. The findings suggests that germination-thermal processing combination enhances nutritional/functional properties of lentil flours and provides opportunities for their incorporation into value-added food product formulations.

Effects of microwave on the structural and emulsifying properties and interfacial properties of oxidized soybean protein aggregates.

This research explored microwave treatment impact on the structuro-functional aspects of oxidized soy protein aggregates (OSPI). Data showed that oxidative treatment promoted the formation of high molecular weight aggregates through hydrophobic interactions, thereby disrupting the structure of natural soy protein isolates (SPI). Microwave treatment for an appropriate time (≤30s) caused the molecular structure of OSPI to open up and reduction in molecular weight and disulfide bond content, while absolute zeta potential increased. These modifications increased emulsifying capacity of OSPI, as well as the interfacial adsorption of protein. Longer microwave treatment times (>30s) caused OSPI to exhibit a tendency to aggregate in TEM and CLSM images. It indicated the appropriate microwave electromagnetic field effect and microwave heating effect could coordinatively regulate soy protein functional properties by modifying their aggregation behavior. The results provided new ideas for reducing resource waste, and further expanding soy protein application in the food industry.

Phytochemical, physical and functional properties of flour blends produced from wheat, unripe plantain and pigeon pea

This study investigated the phytochemical, physical and functional properties of flour blends produced from wheat, unripe plantain and pigeon pea, suitable for purposes of formulating food composition table for the flour blends by homogenously mixing wheat, pigeon pea and unripe plantain flour in the proportion of wheat flour (100%) 100:0 (WHF), wheat-pigeon pea flour 95;5:0 (WPF),wheat-unripe plantain-pigeon pea flour 85:10.5 (WPU1), wheat-unripe plantain-pigeon pea flour 75:15:10 (WPU2)and 65:20:15 (WPU3) respectively. WHF represent 100% wheat flour served as control. There was a significant difference (p<0.05) among samples of flour blends (WHF), (WPF),(WPU1), (WPU2) and (WPU3).The results obtained for proximate composition, phytochemical and functional analysis ranged: crude fiber (2.90-4.07%), protein (10.10-14.50%), moisture (5.00-10.50%), ash (0.50-0.7%), fat (2.04-3.50%), carbohydrate(67.95-79.26%), saponins (0.46-2.97 mg/100g), flavonoids (4.50-4.70 mg/100g), tannins(0.80-1.26 mg/100g) phenols (1.00-1.50 mg/100g), bulk densities (0.41-8.20g/cm3), emulsion capacity (9.20-5.20%), foaming capacity (2.90-10.60%), water absorption capacity (6.20-6.60g/g), oil absorption capacity (0.10-8.50%) and swelling capacity (25.00-29.00%) respectively. The results showed that incorporation of pigeon pea flour into wheat flour significantly (p>0.05) increased the protein, fibre and fat content of composite flour. As the ratio of wheat decreases and increase in the unripe plantain and pigeon pea, the carbohydrate content decreases significantly. WHF shows higher carbohydrate content among samples. This is evident that wheat has high carbohydrate content. Based, on the result from this study, it can be concluded that flour formulation from different four blends can improve the nutritional values of flour blends and reduce anti-nutrients drastically.

Modification of hydrophobic properties of konjac glucomannan using octenyl succinic anhydride

Konjac glucomannan (KGM) is a water-soluble polysaccharide that has the potential to be used as a natural emulsifier because of its high viscosity. This study aimed to modify the KGM structure in order to obtain a KGM which has amphiphilic properties. Modifications were carried out in the microwave using 1-3% sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and 2-4% octenyl succinate anhydride (OSA). Parameters observed included emulsion capacity, emulsion stability, degree of substitution with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), viscosity, hydrophobicity, and Fourier transform infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR). The results showed that the interaction between the concentration of Na2CO3 and OSA had a significant effect on the capacity and stability of the octenyl succinic anhydride-modified konjac glucomannan (KGOS) emulsion. The highest emulsion capacity and stability were obtained using 2% Na2CO3 and 4% OSA. OSA esterification of KGM was shown by increasing the degree of substitution, viscosity, hydrophobicity, and FT-IR analysis. Thus, KGOS can be used as a natural emulsifier with good amphiphilic properties.

Properties of OSA-esterified insoluble fraction of Persian gum and its application in dairy cream.

In the present study, the insoluble fraction of Persian gum (IFPG) was modified with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) and its various properties were assessed. In addition, the effect of OSA-IFPG on the rheological and textural properties of dairy cream was investigated. Suitable conditions for achieving a degree of substitution (DS) of 0.023 were found at pH 9, IFPG concentration 4 wt%, OSA concentration 10 wt% and a temperature of 40 °C, within 120 min. The carbonyl group attachment in OSA-IFPG was also confirmed via Fourier transform infrared and H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1 H-NMR). While the X-ray diffraction test indicated no significant changes in the structure of the IFPG after modification with OSA, esterification increased the negative charge density, decreased thermal decomposition temperature and increased the emulsifying capacity to 100%, which was obtained for the first time. The use of OSA-modified IFPG in creams augmented the complex viscosity, loss and storage modulus, while also demonstrating the creation of a pseudo-gel network. The hardness and adhesiveness of the texture increased, which can be explained by the formation of a compact structure and reduced particle size. Overall, OSA-IFPG with hydrophilic and hydrophobic sections may function as an emulsifier and be recommended as a safe source of hydrocolloids for emulsion stability. It can also provide a positive physical structure when added to dairy cream, even if the fat concentration is lower than usual. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Distinctive Processing Effects on Recovered Protein Isolates from Laurel (Bay) and Olive Leaves: A Comparative Study.

Although there is a well-known awareness of the nutritional potential of plant proteins, their utilization within food formulations is currently limited due to insufficient investigation of the functional properties or processing conditions. In this study, the protein contents of the remaining pulps of laurel (bay) (LL) and olive leaves (OL) after alcoholic washing (representing phenolic compound extraction), heat treatment (representing the usage of the leaves for tea brewing or as cooking aid), and deoiling process (representing oil extraction) were investigated. Bicinchoninic acid assay (BCA) indicated that the best protein yield was achieved with a direct isolation process after hexane oil removal. Both LL and OL isolates contained around 80% protein, but high temperature and alcohol content broke down the protein structure as well as decreased the final protein content (∼40%). Alcohol treatment appears to remove protein-bound phenols and increase fluorescence intensity in OL protein isolates while potentially causing structural alterations in LL proteins. In addition to a dramatic decrease in fluorescence intensity, the absolute zeta potentials of protein extracts of boiling OL and LL increased by 53 and 24%, respectively. The increased zeta potentials along with the decreased fluorescence intensity indicate the changes in the protein conformation and enhanced hydrophilicity of the protein structure, which can influence the functional properties of proteins. Protein extracts of deoiled LL had the highest ΔH value (180 mJ/mg), which is higher than other laurel and all olive protein samples. Laurel protein isolates became more thermally stable after hexane treatment. Moreover, the protein extracts after hexane treatment showed better emulsion capacity from both laurel (71.57%) and olive (61.87%). Water-binding capacity and thermal stability of the protein extracts from deoiled samples were higher than those of the other pretreatments, but the boiled samples showed higher oil-binding capacity due to protein denaturation. These findings indicate the importance of processing conditions in modulating protein properties for various applications.

Utilizing Bullseye fish processing frame waste to produce edible proteins and quality assessment of the recovered proteins.

The aim of the study was to utilize the waste generated from Bullseye (Priacanthus hamrur) fish processing to recuperate proteins. Considering the cost-effectiveness, versatility, and color improvement after the pH shift method, proteins from this waste were extracted by the pH shift method using hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. The properties of extracted proteins were studied in detail. During the protein solubility measurement, maximum solubilization was found at pH 3.0 (13.10mg/mL) on the acidic side and pH 11.0 (14.25mg/mL) on the alkaline side with a total yield of 51.62 ± 0.23 and 45.42 ± 0.29 (%), respectively. The process variables tested in this study showed a significant effect on protein solubility (p < 0.05). The protein content of the isolates extracted from the waste was 23.80 ± 0.49 and 22.48 ± 0.39% for acid and alkali processed isolates, which was significantly higher than the mince (19.46 ± 0.67%). pH shift processing of Bullseye proteins caused a significant reduction in its pigments, lipids, and myoglobin content (p < 0.05). Proteins extracted using alkali had significantly higher values for foaming stability, water holding capacity, and emulsion capacity than proteins extracted using acid. An overall assessment indicated that protein isolates obtained using alkali extraction were better in terms of textural attributes, gelling ability, and amino acid profile than protein isolates extracted using the acid process.

Similarities and differences of nano-sized levan synthesized by Bacillus haynesii at low and high temperatures: Characterization and bioactivity

Levan is a biopolymer with many different uses. Temperature is an important parameter in biopolymer synthesis. Herein, levan production was carried out from Bacillus haynesii, a thermophilic microorganism, in the temperature range of 4 °C-95 °C. The highest levan production was measured as 10.9 g/L at 37 °C. The synthesized samples were characterized by FTIR and NMR analysis. The particle size of the levan samples varied between 153 and 824.4 nm at different temperatures. In levan samples produced at high temperatures, the water absorption capacity is higher in accordance with the particle size. Irregularities were observed in the surface pores at temperatures of 60 °C and above. The highest emulsion capacity of 83.4 % was measured in the sample synthesized at 4 °C. The antioxidant activity of all levan samples synthesized at different temperatures was measured as 84 % on average. All synthesized levan samples showed antibacterial effect on pathogenic bacteria. In addition, levan synthesized at 45 °C showed the highest antimicrobial effect on E. coli ATCC 35218 with an inhibition zone of 21.3 ± 1.82 mm. Antimicrobial activity against yeast sample C. albicans, was measured only in levan samples synthesized at 80 °C, 90 °C, 95 °C temperatures. Levan synthesized from Bacillus haynesii at low and high temperatures showed differences in characterization and bioactivity.

Nutritional composition and techno-functionality of non-defatted and defatted flour of edible insect Arsenura armida

Edible insects are traditional foods worldwide, and in Mexico, is a prehispanic practice. Nowadays, edible insects can be a food source for the increasing population. This research aimed to evaluate the nutritional profile, physical and techno-functional characteristics of non-defatted (NDF) and defatted (DF) flour of the edible insect Arsenura armida to use as a functional ingredient. The lipid content in NDF was 24.18%. Both flours are high in protein, 20.36% in NDF and 46.89% in DF; their soluble proteins from A. armida were classified according to their molecular weight, which ranged from 12 to 94 kDa. The physical properties suggest that both flours have good flow characteristics. Regarding techno-functional properties, DF had the highest water (275.6%) and oil (121%) holding capacity values. The viscosity values indicate that they behave as a non-Newtonian shear-thinning fluid at a high concentration (20%). Emulsion capacity values range between 78.3 and 100% in both flours, with stability between 92.4 and 100%. These flours could be a good source of nutrients, and their techno-functional properties make them a good option for animal protein substitutes.

Lentinula edodes Sing Polysaccharide: Extraction, Characterization, Bioactivities, and Emulsifying Applications.

In the present work, the optimization of extraction, emulsifying properties, and biological activities of polysaccharides from Lentinula edodes Sing (LES) were studied. The results showed LES polysaccharides extracted by hot water or ultrasonication are a group of β-glucan. Among all the samples, the one extracted by hot water showed the best emulsifying capacity. In addition, the results demonstrated that LES polysaccharide had strong scavenging activities in vitro on DPPH and ABTS radicals, which reached the highest level for the one extracted by 90 min ultrasonication (p < 0.05). Overall, Lentinula edodes Sing polysaccharides (LESPs) may have potential applications as emulsifying agents in food industries.

Preparation and Characterization of Fish Protein Isolate from Tiger Tooth Croaker (Otholithus ruber) Obtained through PH Shift Method

Development of Fish Protein Isolate (FPI) from tiger tooth croaker (Otholithus ruber) fish meat using the pH shift method was carried out during this study. Tiger tooth croaker was used as raw material because of their abundance and comparatively low price. During the study, the physical characteristics and proximate composition of the fresh fish were analysed. The average length of fish was 19.95 cm and weighed 94.6 g. respectively. FPI treated at different pH treatments (2.5, 4, 7, 11.5 and 12.5) were analyzed for proximate composition, peroxide value and functional characteristics. In the present work, Tiger tooth croaker (Otolithes ruber) fish was found to be suitable for fish protein isolate production using acid or alkali processing and isoelectric precipitation. During storage at ambient temperature for 120 days in a 200 gauge LDPE pouch, Fish Protein Isolates treated at different pH treatments (2.5, 4, 7, 11.5 and 12.5) indicated an increase in moisture content, reduction in protein and lipid content and no significant reduction in ash content. The total protein content was specifically high for pH 7 followed by pH 12.5, 11.5, 4 and 2.5. The effect of different pH on PV of fish protein isolates showed increasing content with increasing storage. The functional properties such as water-holding capacity (WHC), oil-holding capacity (OHC), emulsifying capacity (EC) and foam measurements (Foaming capacity (FC) and foam stability (FS) exhibit high values for all the samples of fish protein isolates. The quality attribute of functional properties of all fish protein isolates samples showed a trend of decreasing during the storage of 120 days.

Variations in Chemical Composition, Functional Properties and Oil Quality of Groundnut (Arachis Hypogaea) as Influenced by Medium Dose Gamma Irradiation using Cobalt-60 Source

Groundnut samples were irradiated at 2.5 and 10 kGy, using cobalt-60 gamma source; non-irradiated nuts served as control. The parameters determined were the proximate and mineral composition, anti-nutritional factors and functional properties, as well as amino and fatty acids profiles, and oil quality of the samples. Irradiation did not have any significant effect on the proximate composition, except that fat content increased from 41.98 ± 0.03% dry wt. at 0 kGy to 42.06 ± 0.03% and 42.08 ± 0.05% at 2.5 and 10 kGy, respectively. The mean protein content of all the samples was 29.77%. Irradiation significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased the mineral contents of groundnut. Potassium being the most abundant in groundnut (28.56 ± 0.03 mg/100g) at 0 kGy was increased to 37.56 ± 0.01 mg/100g at 2.5 kGy and 36.31 ± 0.01 mg/100g at 10 kGy, respectively. Iron and sodium were low (2.05 ± 0.03 and 2.08 ± 0.03 mg/100g at 0 kGy, respectively; and 2.58 ± 0.02 and 2.82 ± 0.02 mg/100g, respectively). The oil absorption capacity for the groundnut flour samples increased significantly, with increased dose of irradiation (86 ± 0.58, 87 ± 0.58, and 94 ± 0.58% at 0, 2.5 and 10 kGy, respectively); while the foaming and emulsion capacities decreased. Interestingly, the water-holding capacity of groundnut flour was not affected by irradiation. Peroxide and saponification values were not affected significantly (P ≤ 0.05) by irradiation, while the iodine value decreased. Sulphur and aromatic amino acids were reduced significantly (P ≤ 0.05) with increased dose of irradiation. There was reduction or elimination of unsaturated fatty acids at 2.5 and 10 kGy doses, with increase in saturation level due to irradiation. Anti-nutritional factors were reduced with increased dose of irradiation. The findings revealed that irradiation is still suitable as a method of preservation for groundnut, with minimal negative impact on overall nutritional quality.

Comparative study of rheological properties and Pickering emulsion stabilizing capacity of nonenyl succinic anhydride and octenyl succinic anhydride modified amaranth starches

Functional properties and ability to stabilize Pickering emulsions of amaranth starch with the novel nonenyl succinic anhydride (NSA) modification and the widely used octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) modification were compared. The NSA modification was more effective in altering the rheological properties of amaranth starches. NSA-modified amaranth starch showed significantly higher peak viscosity (7.13 Pa·s at DS of 0.02209) than the OSA-modified amaranth starch (6.10 Pa·s at DS of 0.03042). The gelatinization temperature, gelatinization enthalpy, and relative crystallinity of amaranth starch were more affected by the OSA than the NSA. The Pickering emulsions stabilized with NSA-modified starches had higher stability than those with the OSA-modified starches as characterized by particle size distribution, morphological, and rheological approaches. A lower degree of substitution by NSA than by OSA is needed to achieve a similar emulsification capacity. Thus, the NSA modification could be an efficient alternative to OSA modification in tailoring physicochemical and rheological functions, as well as stabilizing Pickering emulsions.

Aquafaba from lentils (Lens culinaris) and common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris): a study of cooking variables and drying process on the techno‐functional and microstructural properties

SummaryThe effect of cooking time and the solid content was analysed in the techno‐functional properties of lentils and common beans aquafaba, and their powders obtained through spray‐drying. Foam drainage kinetic and emulsion destabilisation were successfully modelled showing that lentil aquafaba had better foaming capacity than beans, due to its higher protein content. Moreover, an increase in cooking time results in more liquid incorporated into the foam and a longer lag phase. Bean aquafaba had acceptable emulsifying capacity, attributable to higher soluble carbohydrates. Additionally, microstructure, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry, rehydration capacity, and flowability of aquafaba powders were studied. Microscopy of dried lentil aquafaba showed damaged and collapsed particles, while bean powder consisted of spherical smooth particles. The dominant factor influencing aquafaba functional properties and powder characteristics was the legume type, attributed to their chemical compositions. These findings broaden the insights of alternative sources of aquafaba and enhance the industrial applicability of these residues through highly rehydratable and functional powders.

Production and functional evaluation of nonfat dry milk with whey proteins as fibrils

Commercial manufacturing of dairy products involves the addition of dairy ingredients (such as nonfat dry milk and milk protein concentrates), as well as nondairy additives (such as gums, stabilizers, emulsifiers, and texture modifiers) to get the best product appearance, maintain the product quality, and extend shelf life. Though these nondairy additives are not harmful, consumers do not prefer them in dairy food formulations. Therefore, the dairy industry is working on improving the inherent functionality of dairy ingredients using different processes. Recently, fibrillation emerged as a new technique to convert globular proteins such as whey proteins into fibrils, which provide enhanced viscosity, foaming, and emulsification capacity. Therefore, skim milk was subjected to microfiltration followed by ultrafiltration of microfiltration permeate to fractionate whey proteins. Then, whey proteins were selectively fibrillated and mixed back with other streams of microfiltration and ultrafiltration to get fibrillated skim milk. Fibrillated skim milk was spray-dried to get fibrillated nonfat dry milk (NDM). Visible whey protein fibrils were observed in reconstituted fibrillated NDM, which showed survival of fibrils in fibrillated NDM. Fibrillated NDM showed significantly higher viscosity than control NDM. Fibrillated NDM also showed higher emulsification capacity, foaming capacity, and stability than the control NDM but lower gel strength. Considering the improved functionality of fibrillated NDM, they can be used in product formulations such as ice cream mix, where the thickening of a solution, good emulsification, and foaming properties are required.

Impact of extraction conditions and seed variety on the characteristics of pennycress (Thlaspi arvense) protein: a structure and function approach

AbstractAs the consumer demand for plant proteins continues to grow, the food industry is seeking novel and sustainable protein sources to incorporate in various food products. Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense), a sustainable cover crop, produces oilseeds high in protein, warranting investigation. Accordingly, protein extraction from pennycress was evaluated under various extraction conditions, using alkaline extraction and salt solubilization coupled with ultrafiltration. Given the superior color and functionality of the salt extracted pennycress protein isolate (PcPI), its production was scaled‐up about two hundred folds in a pilot plant. Furthermore, a new pennycress accession bred to have zero erucic acid (0EA) was evaluated to determine the impact of seed variety on protein characteristics. Structural and functional characterization was performed on PcPI and compared to native (nSPI) and commercial (cSPI) soy protein isolates. Salt extracted PcPI had comparable gel strength to cSPI, three times higher solubility under acidic conditions, and ~1.5 times better emulsification capacity. PcPI extracted from 0EA was mildly different in structure and functionality from that extracted from wildtype pennycress, with the slight variation attributed to genetic variance. Finally, the protein digestibility‐corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) of the salt extracted PcPI, calculated in vivo (0.72) and in vitro (0.87), was superior or comparable to other plant protein sources. This research provided, for the first time, a comprehensive evaluation of different protein extraction protocols to produce a functional PcPI that can compete with soy protein for various food applications, such as acidic beverages, meat and dairy products, and emulsified systems.

Effects of protein formula and extrusion cooking conditions on the techno‐functional properties of texturised pea proteins

SummaryPea protein concentrate and isolate were blended to obtain protein blend formulas (PBFs) with three levels of protein content and investigated for their potential for developing texturised vegetable proteins (TVPs). PBFs were extruded at three screw speeds and two feed moisture contents to obtain TVPs. Nitrogen solubility index (NSI) and techno‐functional properties, i.e. water holding capacity, oil absorbance capacity, emulsion capacity and emulsion stability, of the raw materials and the TVPs were examined. Raising the protein content through PBF decreased NSI for both the raw formulas and the TVPs. Regardless of the PBF, extrusion processing substantially decreased NSI, but increased oil absorption capacity. Extrusion's impact on water holding capacity, emulsion capacity and stability was complex and might have been impacted by the protein content and source. Overall, PBF's impact on the techno‐functionality of TVPs was more pronounced than that of extrusion conditions. At higher PBF, the NSI, emulsion capacity and stability values of TVPs were negatively impacted, implying that high protein content does not equate to better TVP quality. Future, TVP techno‐functionality research should focus on a wider range of extrusion screw speed and feed moisture content or the effects of protein content and source.

Synthesis of Mono- and Diacylglycerol Using High Shear Reactor

This study aimed to obtain the best characteristics of a product containing a mixture of high mono- and diacylglycerol (MDAG) from a palm olein and coconut oil blend through glycerolysis- interesterification using a high shear reactor. The most optimum reaction was performed at a relatively low temperature (120 °C), 3% NaOH as a catalyst, a 12% molecular sieve, and an agitating speed of 2000 rpm. The evaluated factors were palm olein: coconut oil ratios (70:30, 60:40, 50:50, 40:60, and 30:70) and oil: glycerol ratios (1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6, and 1:7). The results showed that palm olein: coconut oil ratio had a significant effect on melting point (MP), slip melting point (SMP), hardness, and emulsion capacity and stability, but it did not have a significant effect on MDAG concentration (P &gt; 0.05). Besides, modifying a high-shear reactor with a vacuum pump and molecular sieve caused a decrease in water content in the system, subsequently reducing free fatty acid (FFA) significantly (P &lt; 0.05). The reaction condition at palm olein: coconut oil ratio of 50:50 and oil: glycerol ratio of 1:5 produced the highest MDAG concentration (58.28%) with FFA, water content, hardness, SMP, MP, emulsion capacity, and emulsion stability about 6.75%, 7.00%, 3.93 N, 33.23 °C, 35.57 °C, 62.66%, and 61.59%, respectively. Thus, glycerolysis-interesterification of palm olein and coconut oil blend in a high shear reactor is a promising alternative to produce a product containing high MDAG with better characteristics at a relatively low temperature. The product can be used for chocolate spread based on its emulsion capacity, stability, and semi-solid hardness.

Impact mechanism of methylation degree on structure and emulsifying ability of soy hull polysaccharides

As a chemical modification method, methylation may enhance the emulsification of polysaccharides. In this study, we methylated soy hull polysaccharide (SHP) at 60 °C for 0–8 h and analyzed the degree of methylation (DM), crystallinity, surface hydrophobicity, interfacial adsorption, and emulsification capacity of methylation-modified SHP (MSHP). Fourier infrared spectroscopy results showed that the DM changed from 41.48% ± 1.46%–58.30% ± 2.63% after 8 h of methylation (MSHP-8h). The polysaccharide residues were analyzed by 1H NMR. Increasing the DM improved the surface hydrophobicity of SHP, which effectively reduced the interfacial tension (IFT) of SHP at the O/W interface. At equilibration, the IFT was the lowest for MSHP-8h (15.40 mN/m). However, interface thickness was negatively correlated with the DM. Methylation promotes the migration of SHP to the oil side; therefore, the polysaccharide layer remaining in the aqueous phase decreases with an increasing DM at low and fixed SHP concentration. A reduction in hydrophilicity weakens the hydrogen bonds between polysaccharides to cause the polysaccharide layer to be easily destroyed during the dilution process of the droplet size measurement. However, thin adsorption or hydration layers can adversely affect the stability of the interfacial layer; consequently, emulsions prepared with MSHP-4h were the most stable. Our findings provide a practical and theoretical reference for improving emulsification ability of polysaccharides.