Employment Rates Of Men Research Articles

Comparison of Male and Female Labor Force and Employment Levels in China

In todays era, which calls for equality for all, womens education and social status are gradually improving. As the supply and demand in the labor market is also changing, more and more women have been prompted to enter the labor market in search of economic independence and opportunities for self-realization.The research in this paper aims to promote gender equality, economic development and social progress. This paper uses the World Banks data on the employment rate of men and women over the age of 15 in China.This study descriptively analyzes the data collected by the World Bank, including the mean, variance, and so on. The data collected by the World Bank was then analyzed using R for evaluation. It is understood that both male and female employment rates are declining and the gap between the two is narrowing. The ETS predicts a steady downward trend over a 10-year period. Through ARIMA, this study obtained autocorrelation results between each data point in the time series data and its lagged version. A PEST analysis was then conducted to explain the changes in the data in both models in order to predict future trends in the time series. Finally, it is concluded that the reasons for the decline in the employment rate of men and women in China are multifaceted and require concerted efforts in terms of policy, economy, society, science and technology. It is necessary to promote economic restructuring, solve the problem of population aging, encourage female employment, and increase the employment rate of men and women.

ЖІНКИ НА РИНКУ ПРАЦІ УКРАЇНИ: СТАТИСТИЧНА ОЦІНКА ТА МОЖЛИВОСТІ

Gender equality, restriction of women's rights, protection from violence, financial independence of women are reflected in many programs for the development of society, territories, election and campaign materials. Labor potential is the most dynamic element in the assessment and analysis of economic development in the country. Gender differentiation is a qualitative characteristic of labor potential. The main goal of the article is to assess the labor potential of women in the economy of Ukraine. The tasks of the work are the calculation of gender parity according to a number of analytical indicators, the determination of gender characteristics inherent in the labor market of Ukraine, the study of opportunities and threats to the labor market in terms of equal opportunities for women and men. 7451.4 thousand women had the status of employed in Ukraine in 2021. They provided 42.9% of the employment rate. The employment rate of men was 56.9%. The unemployment rate for women in 2021 was 10.1%, for men – 9.5%. We observe negative trends in the reduction of employment along with the growth of the unemployment rate, which has had a greater impact on the female workforce in recent years. There are a certain number of stereotypes regarding gender professional distribution, in particular, the so-called "male and female professions" "approved" by society. There is a significant quantitative advantage of women in the following professional groups: "Legislators, senior civil servants, leaders, managers (managers)", "Professionals" and "Specialists", "Technical employees" and "Employees of trade and services". Men predominate among the workers. The dynamics of the average wage in the economy of Ukraine by gender for the period 2012–2021 is characterized by a gap in favor of men. This suggests that at the lower levels of grouping of occupations according to the classifier there is a significant advantage of men and, accordingly, a higher level of their remuneration, and requires a detailed separate social study at the level of enterprises and organizations.

The Effect of Childcare Use on Gender Equality in European Labor Markets

Parenthood necessarily increases the scope of unpaid work in households and tends to depress women’s employment rates relative to men’s. This paper examines the relationship between the use of full-time childcare for children under 3 years of age and employment rates for men and women with one, two, or three or more children under 6 years of age in European households. Panel data from a sample of the (then) twenty-eight European Union member states for the 2005–15 period were analyzed. The results indicate that smaller differences between employment rates of men and women with one, two, or three or more children under 6 years of age are associated with greater use of full-time childcare arrangements for children under the age of 3. HIGHLIGHTS Traditional gender roles impose a greater burden of unpaid work on women than men. Parenthood widens the gap between women's and men's employment rates. The use of childcare reduces gender inequality in the labor market. Part-time work arrangements help women combine parenthood and employment. Long leaves have a negative impact on women's employment.

Gender, Selection into Employment, and the Wage Impact of Immigration

Immigrant supply shocks are typically expected to reduce the wage of comparable workers. Natives may respond to the lower wage by moving to markets that were not directly targeted by immigrants and where presumably the wage did not drop. This paper argues that the wage change observed in the targeted market depends not only on the size of the native response, but also on which natives choose to respond. A non-random response alters the composition of the sample of native workers, mechanically changing the average native wage in affected markets and biasing the estimated wage impact of immigration. We document the importance of this selection bias in the French labor market, where women accounted for a rapidly increasing share of the foreign-born workforce since 1976. The raw correlations suggest that the immigrant supply shock did not change the wage of French women, but led to a sizable decline in their employment rate. In contrast, immigration had little impact on the employment rate of men, but led to a sizable drop in the male wage. We show that the near-zero correlation between immigration and female wages arises partly because the native women who left the labor force had relatively low wages. Adjusting for the selection bias results in a similar wage elasticity for both French men and women (between -0.8 and -1.0).

Factors determining disproportions in men and women’s wages in the European Union countries

The primary aim of the presented study was to identify how selected factors determining gender-based inequalities affected the volume of the unadjusted pay gap among employees hired in the European Union after the 2007 crisis compared to the pre-crisis situation.An additional purpose of the study was to indicate changes in the employment rates of men and women, as well as changes in the pay gap between the two sexes (measured by means of the gender pay gap index – GPG), which became noticeable in the EU countries after the crisis, as compared to the pre-crisis period. The study was conducted using single-equation descriptive econometric models describing the wage gap. The analysis was based on the results of the Structure of Earnings Survey (SES) and the Labour Force Survey (LFS), both published by Eurostat. Due to data availability issues, data for 2006 were assumed to be representative for the situation prior to the crisis (the study took into account also countries which became member states in later years), while data covering the year 2012 (employment rate) and the years 2014–2018 (GPG) were assumed as representative for the post-crisis period. The analyses of the male and female employment rate and gender pay gaps indicate that following the crisis, the employment in the 24 EU countries became increasingly ‘feminised’, while no significant reduction of the pay gap was observed in the years 2006–2018. The obtained results indicate that greater ‘feminisation’ of employment is connected with greater gender pay gaps. A similar correlation occurs in relation to the professional activisation rate. In addition, significant differences are observed in terms of the impact some of the analysed factors have on the volume of the gender wage gap in different age and occupational groups.

Gender, Selection into Employment, and the Wage Impact of Immigration

Immigrant supply shocks are typically expected to reduce the wage of comparable workers. Natives may respond to the lower wage by moving to markets that were not directly targeted by immigrants and where presumably the wage did not drop. This paper argues that the wage change observed in the targeted market depends not only on the size of the native response, but also on which natives choose to respond. A non-random response alters the composition of the sample of native workers, mechanically changing the average native wage in affected markets and biasing the estimated wage impact of immigration. We document the importance of this selection bias in the French labor market, where women accounted for a rapidly increasing share of the foreign-born workforce since 1976. The raw correlations suggest that the immigrant supply shock did not change the wage of French women, but led to a sizable decline in their employment rate. In contrast, immigration had little impact on the employment rate of men, but led to a sizable drop in the male wage. We show that the near-zero correlation between immigration and female wages arises partly because the native women who left the labor force had relatively low wages. Adjusting for the selection bias results in a similar wage elasticity for both French men and women (between -0.8 and -1.0).

Assessment of women’s situation on the labour market in EU countries

The aim of the article is to analyse and evaluate the changes in women’s situation on the labour market of European Union countries in the years 2005–2018. The analysis focused on the economic activity of women and men and the following selected aspects of the labour market: the employment and unemployment rates and the relation between women and men’s wages. A hypothesis that women’s situation on the labour market improved, and the pay discrimination against women shrank in EU countries, has been formulated. The study utilised statistical data from the Eurostat Data Base. The evaluation of women’s situation was performed by means of a synthetic measure whose values were determined using the non-standard formula. That measure served as the basis for the linear ordering of EU countries according to the situation of women on the labour market. The study demonstrated that overall, women’s situation on the labour market improved in most EU countries in the analysed period. In all EU countries, the employment rate of women remains lower than the employment rate of men, and additionally, the former strongly varies throughout EU countries. The indicator which differentiates between the women’s and men’s labour markets to a large extent is the percentage of persons employed part-time. Part time employment is more popular in Western European countries and concerns women to a much greater extent than men. The study indicates that the levelling of women’s and men’s wages is taking place; nevertheless, women’s wages in nearly half of EU countries still do not exceed 80% of men’s average wages.

Is retirement good for men’s health? Evidence using a change in the retirement age in Israel

This study examines the effect of employment on elderly men’s health. A typical OLS analysis yields a positive relationship between employment and health for individuals in their sixties. Causality, however, is difficult to infer because healthier individuals are more capable of working than others. To overcome this endogeneity problem, this paper exploits the increase in the full retirement age for men in Israel from sixty-five to sixty-seven in 2004. After this change, the employment rate of men in this age bracket jumped significantly compared to the last cohort that was able to retire at sixty-five. Using the new retirement law as an exogenous source of variation in the employment status of elderly men, a significant causal relationship in the opposite direction of the correlation is found: employment at older ages impairs health. These findings are found across a broad array of datasets and health outcomes. The results are significantly stronger among less-educated workers, suggesting that employment in physically demanding occupations is more detrimental to health. Placebo analyses using the years preceding the new retirement regime and other health measures unrelated to employment (e.g., dentist visits) reinforce a causal interpretation of my main findings.

Trend and Levels of Women Empowerment in Nigeria

Women empowerment has become major factor in economic development and is increasingly at the core of countries’ competitiveness in the global economy. The main objective of this paper is to ascertain the trend and level of women empowerment in Nigeria by 2015. Secondary data from Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), Nigeria Demographic and Education Survey (NDES), and National Population Commission (NPC) were used. Employment, education and literacy rate were adopted as measures of women empowerment. An overview of the relationship between women’s level of education and other background characteristics was carried out. The results showed that men are more likely than women to have some education. Over 40 percent of men are literate compared to 13 percent of women, which is similar to the results obtained from variables like occupation, agriculture, etc. Employment is one source of empowerment for women but unfortunately it is difficult to measure their employment status because the informal sectors are not reported. However, the data on hand indicates, for instance, that women and men currently employed in the North West are 46 and 54 percent respectively. Also, the employment rate of men and women in urban area are of the ratio 42:37 percent while the employment ratio of men to women in the rural area is 63:58. The study also hints that employment, education and literacy rate of women are strong determinants of economic growth and they should not be neglected as the nation works toward attaining vision 2020 goals.

Association of vision loss and work status in the United States.

Working is critical to personal health and well-being. We examine the association of vision measured objectively with work status using a nationally representative sample of working-age Americans. A total of 19 849 participants from the 1999-2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey completed a vision examination and employment/demographic questionnaires. Employment rates for men with visual impairment, uncorrected refractive error, and normal vision were 58.7%, 66.5%, and 76.2%, respectively; employment rates for women with visual impairment, uncorrected refractive error, and normal vision were 24.5%, 56.0%, and 62.9%, respectively. In multivariable models adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, and chronic disease status, both uncorrected refractive error (odds ratio [OR], 1.36; 95% CI, 1.15-1.60) and visual impairment (OR, 3.04; 95% CI, 1.93-4.79) were associated with a higher likelihood of not working. Subgroups in which visual impairment was associated with even higher odds of not working included women (OR, 4.9; 95% CI, 2.5-9.6), participants younger than 55 years (OR, 4.3; 95% CI, 2.9-6.5), and diabetic individuals (OR, 14.8; 95% CI, 5.8-37.3). Decreased vision is associated with a significantly higher likelihood of not working. Visually impaired diabetic individuals, women, and those younger than 55 years have a particularly high risk of not working. Further investigation is warranted to understand barriers for employment in individuals with decreased vision.

Reconciling findings on the employment effect of disability insurance.

Over the last 25 years, the Social Security Disability Insurance Program (DI) has grown dramatically. During the same period, employment rates for men with work limitations showed substantial declines in both absolute and relative terms. While the timing of these trends suggests that the expansion of DI was a major contributor to employment decline among this group, raising questions about the targeting of disability benefits, studies using denied applicants suggest a more modest role of the DI expansion. To reconcile these findings, we decompose total employment changes into population and employment changes for three categories: DI beneficiaries, denied applicants, and non-applicants. Our results show that during the early 1990s, the growth in DI can fully explain the employment decline for men only under an extreme assumption about the employment potential of beneficiaries. For the period after the mid-1990s, we find little role for the DI program in explaining the continuing employment decline for men with work limitations.

Gender equality and the state: a review of objectives, policies and progress in the European Union

This article aims to map recent developments in the areas of gender equality and gender mainstreaming within the European Union (EU). It begins with coverage of feminist debates in the 1990s on the role of the EU in making progress in the area of gender equality across member states. It then looks at developments in the European employment strategy (EES) and Lisbon Strategy. Following this, the article analyses the extent to which the Open Method of Coordination (OMC) and objectives on gender equality have resulted in a convergence or divergence in policy frameworks and outcomes across member states. This article focuses on three sets of state responses to EU gender objectives in UK and Sweden, each crucial in terms of gender equality. These are the employment rates of men and women, childcare provisions and reconciliation of work and private life, and the gender pay gap. Despite seeming pressure through soft regulation for a convergence of gender equality across EU27, major points of divergence still exists based on historical legacies of welfare state provision and gender politics, within specific nation states.

The Factors Determining on the Employment Rate of Men Aged 55~64 in 15 OECD Countries

The Factors Determining on the Employment Rate of Men Aged 55~64 in 15 OECD Countries

THE GROWTH OF FAMILY EARNINGS INEQUALITY IN CANADA, 1980–2005

In this study we document recent trends in family earnings inequality using data from the Canadian Census and provide insight into the various factors that drive changes in the family earnings distribution. Over the period 1980–95 we observe substantial increases in family earnings inequality. In contrast, we find that some decrease in inequality occurred over the period 1995–2005 although the earnings of the richest 1 percent of families increased substantially. We use semi‐parametric decomposition methods to show that increases in the employment rates of men and women, increases in their educational attainment, and decreases in assortative mating tended to have equalizing effects on the family earnings distribution. We also show that increases in the returns to higher education and increases in the proportion of single individuals as well as lone‐parent families drove increases in family earnings inequality.

Reconciling Findings on the Employment Effect of Disability Insurance

Over the last 25 years the Social Security Disability Insurance Program (DI) has grown dramatically. During the same period of time employment rates for men with work limitations showed substantial declines in both absolute and relative terms. While the timing of these trends suggests that the expansion of DI was a major contributor to employment decline and raises questions about the targeting of disability benefits, studies using denied applicants suggest a more modest role for DI expansion. In order to reconcile these findings, we decompose total employment changes into population and employment changes for three categories: DI beneficiaries, denied applicants and non-applicants. Our results show that during the early 1990s, the growth in DI can fully explain the employment decline for men only under an extreme assumption about the employment potential of beneficiaries. For the period after the mid-1990s, we find little role for the DI program in explaining the continuing employment decline for men with work limitations.

Population Ageing and the Labour Market: Evidence from Italy

AbstractIndividual data from eight waves of the European Community Household Panel are used to investigate the impact of cohort size on age‐earnings and employment profiles of Italian male workers. Evidence that over the life cycle cohort size depresses employment opportunities of men with low education and earnings and employment rates of men with intermediate and high qualifications born into large cohorts is found. These results are used to carry out a simple simulation where the average future wages of Italian male workers are projected for the next 4.5 decades. According to this simulation, the wages of Italian male workers will follow a hump‐shaped pattern in the next three decades, before slightly increasing again.

Labor market participation following onset of seizures and early epilepsy: Findings from a UK cohort

Previous studies have reported a considerable employment disadvantage among people with epilepsy. In a cohort of men and women who had experienced a single seizure or had early epilepsy at study entry we explored employment status and social mobility over 4 years and investigated whether employment outcomes were more disadvantageous for certain social groups. Analyses were based on 350 individuals of working age identified via the UK Multicentre Study of Early Epilepsy and Single Seizures. Employment rates were calculated for the cohort and general population. Employment trajectories over 4 years were explored according to occupational social class. The relative risk of employment was calculated by clinical features of seizures and social class. Individuals with single seizures or early epilepsy had significantly lower employment rates than the general population at study entry, and 2- and 4-year follow-up. Employment rates of men and women in the cohort did not differ significantly. Although little social class mobility occurred during follow-up, there was evidence of some downward mobility between first seizure(s) and study entry. In the fully adjusted model, nonemployment was predicted at all time points by having fair/poor self-rated health and experiencing four or more seizures. We observed that some individuals continued to work in hazardous occupations or drive professionally within a year of experiencing seizure(s). People who have recently experienced a single seizure or who have early epilepsy are exposed to substantial employment disadvantage. Greater efforts are necessary to help these people return to work and stay employed.

Active aging and pension reform: The gender implications in France

In the first section of this article, the authors Christel Gilles and Antoine Parent, argue that in France, public policy and the pension system provide financial incentives favoring early retirement. The implementation of “bridge jobs” to facilitate the transition from full employment to full retirement, could, in theory, lessen the long-term decline in employment rates of men and women. Gilles and Parent, in the second section, question the idea that rising labor force participation rates among women are adequate to narrow pension inequalities between men and women. Regarding this point, we also note that since women's careers are generally shorter than men's and their labor income remains, on average, lower, an increase, in female labor force participation would lead, in an occupational-based system, to a substitution effect between direct and indirect entitlements. The impact of this effect on pension gender inequalities remains uncertain. In the third section, the authors examine, from a gender perspective, other pension reform options that may, in theory, provide greater gender equality, but that are, in practice, far from the implementation phase.

The Wage and Employment Effects of the Americans with Disabilities Act

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) is analyzed in terms of its effects on the employment and wages of disabled men using data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation. The results indicate that, as early as 1990, employment rates of men with disabilities decreased dramatically and continued to decrease through the beginning of 1995. On average over the post-ADA period, employment of men with disabilities was 7.2 percentage points lower than before the act was passed. In addition, wages of disabled men did not change with the passage of the ADA.

Crisis económica y determinantes de la oferta de trabajo femenino en México : 1994-1995

La rápida incorporación de la mujer al mercado de trabajo constituye uno de los temas de investigación de mayor relevancia a la luz de las rápidas transformaciones sociales, económicas y demográficas que ha experimentado México en las últimas dos décadas. Entre muchos otros factores, diversos estudios han argumentado sobre la existencia de una estrecha relación entre este proceso de cambio social de la mujer y la crisis económica que han enfrentado muchas familias mexicanas durante un largo periodo de reestructuración productiva. La base de este argumento deriva, en gran medida, de la cuantificación de un fenómeno poco común en México hasta antes de los años ochenta: una creciente participación económica de mujeres en edades adultas avanzadas, con bajo nivel educativo, casadas o en unión libre y, finalmente, de mujeres con hijos pequeños. Es decir, de grupos sociales que tradicionalmente habían manifestado una muy baja propensión a trabajar fuera del hogar. Este artículo constituye un estudio de coyuntura cuyo objetivo principal fue evaluar empíricamente la relación entre crisis económica y este nuevo perfil de mano de obra femenina. Para ello se estudiaron los determinantes de la oferta del empleo urbano femenino durante los primeros meses de la crisis económica más reciente, en contraste con la situación prevaleciente exactamente un año antes. Los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Empleo Urbano muestran que el ingreso real de los trabajadores, el desempleo abierto y la tasa de ocupación de los hombres en el trabajo asalariado, fueron las condiciones del empleo urbano más afectadas por la recesión. Los análisis multivariados realizados permiten señalar tres resultados importantes. Primero, que los impactos de la crisis sobre la participación económica de hombres y mujeres variaron significativamente entre los centros urbanos más importantes del país. Segundo, que con la excepción de las mujeres con más baja educación, efectivamente es posible establecer la existencia de una estrecha relación entre la mayor ocupación de mujeres de mayor edad, unidas, y que residen en hogares donde cohabitan niños menores de siete años, con una situación de crisis económica. Tercero, que varios de estos cambios sucedieron no únicamente en mercados laborales donde la participación económica femenina aumentó durante el periodo, sino también en aquéllos en que ésta se mantuvo estable o disminuyó.