Employment Gap Research Articles

Trade Liberalization and the Gender Employment Gap in China

This paper investigates the impact of import liberalization induced labor demand shocks on male and female employment in China. Combining data from population and firm censuses between 1990 and 2005, we relate prefecture-level employment by gender to the exposure to tariff reductions on locally imported products. Our empirical results show that increasing import competition has kept more females in the workforce, reducing an otherwise growing gender employment gap in the long run. These dynamics were present both in local economies as a whole and among formal private industrial firms. Examining channels through which tariff reductions differentially affect males and females, we find that trade-induced competitive pressures contributed to a general expansion of female-intensive industries, a shift in sectoral gender segregation, reductions in gender discrimination in the labor market, technological upgrading through computerization, and general income growth.

Trade Liberalization and the Gender Employment Gap in China

This paper investigates the impact of import liberalization induced labor demand shocks on male and female employment in China. Combining data from population and firm census waves over the period of 1990 to 2005, we relate prefecture-level employment by gender to the exposure to tariff reductions on locally imported products. Our empirical results show that increasing import competition has kept more females in the workforce, reducing an otherwise growing gender employment gap. These dynamics were present both in the local economies as a whole and among formal private industrial firms. Examining channels through which tariff reductions differentially affected males and females, we find that trade induced competitive pressures contributed to a general expansion of female intensive industries, shifts in sectoral gender segregation, reductions in gender discrimination in the labor market, technological upgrading through computerization and general income growth.

Gender equality in global health leadership: Cross-sectional survey of global health graduates

ABSTRACTWomen comprise two-thirds of the global-health (GH) workforce but are underrepresented in leadership. GH departments are platforms to advance gender equality in GH leadership. Using a survey of graduates from one GH department, we compared women’s and men’s post-training career agency and GH employment and assessed whether gender gaps in training accounted for gender gaps in career outcomes. Master-of-Public-Health (MPH) and mid-career-fellow alumni since 2010 received a 31-question online survey. Forty-four per cent of MPH alum and 24% of fellows responded. Using logistic regression, we tested gender gaps in training satisfaction, career agency, and GH employment, unadjusted and adjusted for training received. Women (N = 293) reported lower satisfaction with training (M7.6 vs 8.2) and career agency (leadership ability: M6.3 vs 7.4) than men (N = 60). Women more often than men acquired methods-related skills (95% vs 78%), employment recommendations (42% vs 18%), and group membership. Men more often than women acquired leadership training (43% vs 23%), award recommendations (53% vs 17%), and conference support (65% vs 35%). Women and men had similar odds of GH employment. Accounting for confounders and gender-gaps in training eliminated gender gaps in five of six career-agency outcomes. Panel studies of women’s and men’s career trajectories in GH are needed.

The Effects of Skill Regimes and Family Policies on the Gender Employment Gap

Abstract Drawing on the literature of gendering varieties of capitalism, this study empirically tests whether skill regimes moderate the association between family policy and the gender employment gap. Using the Luxembourg Income Study for fifteen countries with multilevel analysis and various gender employment indicators, this study finds that general skill regimes are associated with a smaller gender employment gap in full-time jobs, high-skilled jobs, and in the private sector. The effects of parental leave vary significantly by skill regimes, suggesting that patterns of gender employment gap associated with parental leave differ by types of skill regimes.

Reflections of Positive Experiences in Midwifery and Nursing of Maternal-Newborn Education in Thailand: Lessons Learned from Naresuan University

The success of maternal and child health practices emphasizes on health policies, building effective partnerships, advocating for investments in maternal and newborn health, and coordinating research that focuses on improving maternal health in pregnancy and during and after childbirth. In these situations, nurses and midwives are the key resources that comprise the greater part of the health-care workforce. Nurses and midwives make substantial contributions to healthcare delivery systems especially in primary care, acute care, and community care setting. Thailand has an excellent production of nurses since they can perform duties as a nurse and as a midwife. This is what we think nurses from other countries should apply in their countries to improve health services. We can also show that our country has a low gender gap in employment not just in nursing. This paper would like to present the lessons learned from Thailand Nursing Education purposed in midwifery, maternal, and newborn nursing at Naresuan University. Specifically, the purpose of this article was to discuss the midwife and maternal and newborn education standards in Thailand and describe the experiences using reflective knowledge in order to inform current and future midwifery and maternal and newborn nursing practices in Thailand.

The Long-Term Effects of Long Terms – Compulsory Schooling Reforms in Sweden

AbstractWe evaluate the impact on earnings, pensions, and further labor market outcomes of two parallel educational reforms increasing instructional time in Swedish primary school. The reforms extended the annual term length and years of compulsory schooling by comparable amounts. We find striking differences in the effects of the two reforms: at 5% the returns to the term length extension were sizeable and benefited broad ranges of the population. The compulsory schooling extension had small (2%) albeit significant effects, which were possibly driven by an increase in post-compulsory schooling. Both reforms led to increased sorting into occupations with heavy reliance on basic skills and the term extension reduced the gender gap in employment and earnings.

Tendencias del empleo formal privado de Perú: un análisis con planilla electrónica (2008-2018)

El presente documento analiza las tendencias y posibles cambios generados en el empleo formal registrado del sector privado de Perú, en base a la información de la planilla electrónica reportada desde agosto de 2010 hasta agosto de 2018. La evidencia revela que no hay cambios significativos en las tendencias y estructuras del empleo formal del sector privado. Sin embargo, se registró una reducción en la brecha proporcional del empleo a favor de las mujeres y una consolidación de la fuerza laboral adulta de 30 y más años de edad. Más del 88% del aumento de empleo formal privado femenino fue explicado por el dinamismo intersectorial (efecto within) y no por cambios estructurales del mercado laboral. En la mayoría de las regiones el crecimiento del empleo formal privado se explicó fundamentalmente por el efecto regional debido a la especialización interna y al dinamismo sectorial en las regiones.

Gendered Career Pathways among Doctoral Graduates in the United Kingdom

While women form about half of PhD students in Western countries, previous studies have shown that female doctoral graduates are underrepresented in senior positions and have lower earnings compared to their male counterparts within and outside academia. Less is known however about the role of gender in determining the odds of securing a permanent position among doctorate recipients. In this study, we use data from the UK Doctoral Impact and Career Tracking Survey from 2013 to explore the career trajectories of doctoral graduates within seven to nine years after earning their degree. We find that in every observed time point following graduation (0.5, 3.5, and 7–9 years), men are significantly more likely to work in a permanent job than women are. Furthermore, gender gaps in permanent employment are particularly pronounced in the private sector and in non-academic occupations. Using a nested logistic regression model, we find that the higher propensity of female doctoral graduates to work in part-time employment compared to their male counterparts, in combination with other differential employment characteristics has cumulative negative implications on their likelihood of securing a permanent position.

The returns to education in rural China: Some new estimates

We estimate the rates of return to education in rural China using primary survey data collected in 2016. Estimated average returns to education are 3.1 per cent. However, careful statistical analysis is required when estimating the returns to education. The paper demonstrates that when employment interruptions are accounted for, the measured returns to education rise. Our results also confirm that mismeasurement of the wage rate by using an hourly wage rate (versus daily or monthly earnings) raises the estimation of rates of return to education. Finally, our results suggest that the return to education is nonlinear in education levels but only when it reaches the tertiary level.

Does Driving as a Form of

About 20% of the U.S. unemployed population has been out of the labor force for more than 6 months. The rise of the gig economy has changed the landscape of nontraditional employment opportunities for these predominantly low-skilled long-term unemployed workers. This particular type of on-demand work can be used to fill unemployment gaps and offers little to no training costs and flexible hours. Therefore, we explore whether driving as a form of gig work helps to mitigate the negative effects of long-term unemployment for low-skilled job seekers with employment gaps, and how employers evaluate workers who have held non-traditional jobs. Using a correspondence audit study with 1006 job applications, we evaluated whether a set of resumes "enhanced" with experience driving for a real-time ridesharing service received more callbacks than baseline resumes with an employment gap. We found no evidence that driving as a form of gig work increased the callback rates of applicants. In fact, we observed that in comparison to men, the callback rates for women slightly declined. Our study suggests that driving 'gigs' might not be a substitute for traditional employment on resumes for low-skilled workers. We contribute a call to CSCW to investigate methods that help to understand why real-time ridesharing services do not substitute for traditional jobs in bridging employment gaps and solutions on how to overcome it. Finally, we reflect on our use of audit studies in the new digital era and present potential CSCW and HCI contributions using this method.

The Role of the Economic Sector Growth in the Province Maluku

Regional economic development is a process of local government and the entire community to manage the various resources available. One measure of the success of economic development is viewed from the economic growth. The economic growth of an area can be seen from the value of GDP of the area. The imbalance in the contribution of each sector to the GDP value of Maluku province indicates the persistence of disparities in economic sectors Maluku province. The gap is meant income gap, employment gap in each sector that will always be a problem if left continuously. This study aims to analyze which sectors that have relevance to the forward and backward linkages that can be known which sector became the leading sectors, potential and backward in Maluku province. Then with the input output analysis can know which sectors have the most impact on output, income and employment opportunities for other sectors and to identify changes that occur in each sector if there is a change in the economic structure in Maluku province. Of the three analyses, we can conclude which sector most positive influence on other economic sectors in the province of Maluku.

The end of ethnicity? Racism and ambivalence among offspring of mixed marriages in Israel

ABSTRACT Research into ethnic inequality in Israel indicates continuing gaps in education and employment between Israelis whose ethnic origin lies in Muslim countries and those with roots in Christian countries. The categories that were created ex nihilo with the establishment of the state of Israel to refer to these groups were ‘Mizrahi’ and ‘Ashkenazi’, and these continue to play a role in Israeli society today. ‘Mixed’ Israelis (those who were born to ethnically mixed marriages) have, since the establishment of the state, been the population in whom Israel’s policy makers have invested their hopes as the future proof of the success of the social experiment launched by the Zionist enterprise. These Israelis, it was anticipated, would create a new social reality – a post-ethnic age, in which internal Jewish ethnic social tensions would cease to exist. This study, which is based on interviews with tens of such Israelis, reveals that ethnic identity plays a significant role in the interviewees’ self-definition, and is very much a salient aspect of their daily lives. They offer stereotypical presentations of both Mizrahi-ness and Ashkenazi-ness, which they simultaneously internalise and reject, while explaining why these stereotypes are erroneous and even dangerous.

Self-employed or Paid Employed: Who can Earn more among the Slum Dwellers and Why?

Past literature in the context of slum dwellers rarely acknowledges the occupational variation in informal job types. The dearth of studies also exists in specifying the informal types where public policy can result in their improved livelihoods. Based on 240 respondents settled in the slums of four districts of West Bengal, it analyses the types of informal employment in offsetting poverty of the slum dwellers. The participation of only 27 percent of the women in informal employment as compared to 73 percent of the male suggests the existence of gender gap in informal employment. The study finds that irrespective of the types of informal employment, the workers mostly belong to the economically weaker sections. The self-employed population is better regarding earning, using the formal account for savings, and job security (tenure). The findings suggest the enhancement of opportunities for the vendors and drivers among the self-employed, and the labourers working in the electrical and electronic sectors among the paid-employees. The district, gender, relationship status, and social network are among the major variables that determine the self-employment pattern of the slum dwellers.

An empirical analysis of trends in female labour force participation and the gender wage gap in South Africa

abstractIn this analysis, we constructed cohort data from repeated cross-sections using the Post-Apartheid Labour Market Series (PALMS) and examined trends in labour market outcomes in the South African labour market. Labour force participation trends show a substantial and persistent gender gap over the life cycle. The gender gap in employment is wide at young ages but seems to decline over the life cycle confirming that younger women are more vulnerable to high unemployment. Earnings trajectories of more recent cohorts of men and women are above those of older cohorts showing that younger cohorts have experienced gains in earnings over time. The gender wage gap is smaller for the youngest cohorts an indication of generational effects. This result suggests a long-term narrowing of the gender wage gap as male and female labour market characteristics become similar. The significance of age is evident as the gender wage gap increases over the life cycle indicating a discontinuous labour force participation for women. Interventions to reduce this discontinuity require among other things alleviating the disproportionate burden of care work shouldered by women to enable them to commit more time to the labour market. A cohort analysis of the occupational distribution by gender shows that more recent cohorts of women are in better occupations than the generations of women before them. This is attributable to improved human capital and better labour market opportunities for younger cohorts. A further narrowing of the gender wage gap requires interventions that will ensure a better distribution of women in male dominated occupations. We note however, that African men and women seem to be dropping out of the labour market at an early age which implies that other factors aside from motherhood or family responsibilities (possibly health issues) are causing this decline in participation.

Employment and poverty: Why work matters in understanding poverty.

This article synthesizes the work-related dynamics that contribute to economic inequality and identifies ways for psychologists to offer their expertise to mitigate poverty through employment and re-employment. We summarize scholarship from subspecialties under the umbrella of work psychology to explore concepts germane to understanding unemployment, underemployment, and reemployment. The review and synthesis is organized around 4 primary themes that concern the relationships between work, economic inequality, and poverty. First, unemployment has devastating financial and psychological consequences for individuals, families, and communities. Second, reemployment is challenging to acquire but crucial to recovering from unemployment and escaping poverty. Third, systemic and societal factors, such as employment bias and gaps in employment law, shape and constrain employment processes for individuals and organizations. Fourth, the nature of employment is changing because of technological advances, growth in the contingent labor force, and globalized business relationships that introduce new concerns for underemployment, unemployment, and reemployment processes for individuals. We conclude by charting important directions for future research, describing promising interventions for practitioners, and summarizing opportunities for psychologists to apply their knowledge and expertise to support policies that can alleviate poverty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Employment Support for Autistic Adults in the Information Technology Sector: A Case Study of Meticulon Consulting Inc.

Autistic adults are at heightened risk to experience poor employment outcomes. Employment supports are suggested to improve these outcomes, but relatively little is known about the key ingredients of employment support and their respective impact. We conducted a case study of employment support offered by Meticulon Consulting Inc., a social enterprise that facilitates and supports employment in the information technology (IT) sector for autistic adults. We conducted three sequential interviews (once per month) with four autistic adults working in the IT sector and receiving employment support, as well as one-time interviews with nine employers and three employment support personnel. Participants valued employment support. They appreciated the immediacy and flexibility of support, varied assistance offered to both employees and employers, and organizational learning about needed workplace adjustments. Participants further stated that employment support improved work environments, decreased employee anxiety at work, and improved employee confidence. Challenges to employment included gaps in support during times of employment interruption, waning employee motivation, and mental health service gaps in the community. Recommendations for future advancement entailed (1) continuous support even in periods of unemployment, (2) employment support services across industries and sectors beyond IT, and (3) greater opportunity for autistic people, as they desire, to advance to leadership roles in employment settings. The study identifies benefits of, and guidance for, employment support in the IT sector. We offer recommendations, with potential relevance for autistic employees, employers, and employment support providers. Ensuring employment-related supports, as needed and desired by autistic adults, is a priority for advancing employment outcomes in this population. Why was this study done?: We did this study to learn about employment support in the information technology (IT) sector since little is known about these supports and they may be important in helping autistic adults obtain and keep jobs.What was the purpose of this study?: We sought to explore employment support for autistic individuals working in the IT sector including what employment support was like for autistic adults, individuals employing them, and professionals providing them employment support.What did the researchers do?: We asked 16 people with experience receiving or providing employment supports in the IT sector about their thoughts on employment support: 4 autistic adults who received program support, 9 employers, and 3 employment support professionals.What were the results of the study?: Both employers and employees found employment support services helpful in obtaining and retaining employment. Participants described positive experiences with employment support, including better access to suitable and satisfying employment, improved work environments, decreased anxiety, and a supportive and trusting relationship with the job coaches. Employers noted the proficiency of the employees in their work duties, and identified the job coaches as sources of knowledge and guidance. Employers described benefits to their organizations including learning and growth in their work environment related to attitudes and knowledge about autism and autistic coworkers. Participants recommended (1) continuous employment support even in times of employment interruption, (2) providing employment support across industries and sectors beyond IT, and (3) fostering opportunities for leadership roles for autistic adults, as they desire. Some challenges identified by participants included gaps in services when individuals were waiting to be employed, employees losing motivation, and gaps in community mental health services.What do these findings add to what was already known?: This study helps us better understand employment support in IT jobs. It adds knowledge about the benefits that autistic adults receive from this support. It also describes the importance of extending beyond only individual skill development and moving toward the development of an "ecosystem" of support with increased community resources, including supporting potential employers and reducing barriers to employment. The study also describes specific tasks of employment support, such as brokering communication between employees and employers.What are potential weaknesses in the study?: We did this study in a single region and with a small group of people. It is possible others might have different experiences and perspectives.How will these findings help autistic adults now or in the future?: This study highlights the value of employment support for autistic adults in the IT sector. With wider availability of effective employment support, it is hoped that more autistic adults will achieve better and more satisfying employment. Our findings offer information that can potentially contribute to good and satisfying career opportunities for autistic adults.

Employment and Wage Gaps Among Recent Canadian Male and Female Postsecondary Graduates

Level of postsecondary schooling and field of study remain significant markers of social stratification. However, the extent to which these various types of postsecondary schooling influence the labor market outcomes of recent male and female graduates is unknown. Drawing on data from Statistics Canada’s 2013 National Graduates Survey, we examine the employment status and gender gap in earnings among recent Canadian male and female graduates at different levels of postsecondary education and various fields of study, three years after graduation. The findings indicate substantial gender disparities in employment status across all types of postsecondary education. The gender gap in earnings is highest among trades and community college graduates, but effectively disappears for graduates with earned doctorate degrees. With respect to field of study, the gender wage gap is smallest among liberal arts graduates and largest among graduates with math-, computer science-, or engineering-related credentials. The policy implications associated with these findings should be of interest to international researchers as pay equity among men and women in the workforce remains a priority for all OECD countries.

A Decomposition and Counterfactual Analysis of the Effect of Parents' Educational Status on Youth Employment Outcomes

This study sought to examine the extent to which youth employment outcomes in Ghana are influenced by their individual and family characteristics on the one hand and parents' educational status on the other. A sample size of 250 youths, both employed and unemployed, was used for the study. A probit estimation with marginal effects was used to determine how these individuals and family characteristics influence employment outcomes. The results showed that individual and family characteristics influence employment outcomes. We disentangle educational background of parents and group them into high and low status. A Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition shows that the employment gap between youths with parents of high educational status and those with parents of low educational status is largely influenced by the differences in the individual and other family characteristics of the youths rather than differences in parents' educational status.

GENDER DYNAMICS IN EMPLOYMENT AND LABOUR FORCE TRENDS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Culture, tradition, norms and stereotypes have always contributed to the gender division of labour. Women often assume much more of the household and care responsibilities which inhibit their ability and opportunity to participate in the labour market. The fact is that career and family decisions coincide in terms of timing call for systems which would allow a concordant time investment in both market work and nonmarket activities. The aim of this paper is to provide facts through a gender-based comparative analysis of the information on labour force, employment, and unemployment trends in South Africa, covering the period from 2010 to 2016. The paper analyses secondary data collected from the South African Quarterly Labour Force Survey covering the period from 2010 to 2016. The analysis of data is descriptive in nature. The results revealed that women were more likely than men to be unemployed or underemployed. Women’s share of the total informal workforce is higher than men’s share and they (women) are more likely to do unpaid household than men. The gender gap in employment, occupation and sector translates into limited access to employment-related social protection among females. Efforts need to be made in enabling environment towards women’s economic empowerment, through the expansion and improvement of the infrastructure for care services.

Parties, governments and the integration of immigrants

ABSTRACT Integration of immigrants into the labor market is a sizeable policy concern for developed democracies. This article argues that government type influences immigrants’ labor market outcomes. Since immigrant integration constitutes a multidimensional policy space, differences in party preferences and the dynamics of intragovernmental and legislative bargaining make it hard for coalition and minority governments to implement effective labor market integration policies. Consequently, single-party majority governments are better able to foster the labor market integration of immigrants. Fixed-effects estimations in a panel of OECD countries provide evidence in favor of this argument. A single-party majority government reduces the employment gap between the foreign and the native-born population with several percentage points.