Employment Gap Research Articles

Gendered globalization: The relationship between globalization and gender gaps in employment and occupational opportunities

Despite the steady increase in women’s labor force participation, there are still substantial cross-country variations in women’s rates of gainful employment and gender-linked occupational inequality. Utilizing micro-data for 41 countries (circa 2013) obtained from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS, 2023), we examine the extent to which globalization and each of its three components – economic, social, and political – affect gender-based economic inequality. Specifically, we investigate the effects of globalization and each of its components on two outcomes: the relative odds of women’s labor force participation, and of their obtaining lucrative managerial and professional jobs (vertical segregation). The findings establish a positive relationship between globalization and the relative odds of women participating in the work force. However, there is also a negative relationship between globalization and women’s odds of obtaining lucrative managerial and professional jobs. The findings also indicate that social globalization is more consequential for gender inequality in the labor market than either economic or political globalization. We discuss the findings in light of theory and previous research on globalization and gender-based inequality.

Uniform agricultural tax abolition and differential household labor supply: Evidence from China's urban household survey

Uniform government public policy has steadily shaped the labor supply from households in the past few decades in China with possible differential impact on each parent. This paper investigates how uniform tax policy change plays differential roles in household's labor supply through government public education spending. Utilizing the exogenous shock from China's agricultural tax abolition in 2005, we find that the abolition results in a reduction in female employment but an increase in male employment. Specifically, a 1% increase of agricultural tax to public revenue ratio in the reference year leads to a 0.485% labor supply reduction and 1.50 fewer hours of work per month for married women, whereas the married men's labor supply increases by 0.191% and their working hours by 1.06 h in a typical urban family with school-going children. The effects are greater on married women with primary school-age children and married men from high-asset households. Our mechanism analysis indicates that public education spending works as a substitute for private education spending and affects the household labor supply through investment in children's human capital. Our findings offer a new perspective on the decreasing female labor supply and the widening employment gap between (married) women and (married) men in the Chinese labor market. The findings suggest that public tax policy could lead to unintended consequences on household's labor supply decisions, and thus exacerbate the gender employment gap in the labor market.

Promoting equity in hiring: An evaluation of the HireNext Job Posting Assessment

AbstractThe language used in job postings can deter applicants and contribute to the employment gap, which refers to high rates of youth unemployment occurring simultaneously with high levels of job vacancies. We tested youth preferences for job postings modified using a free online tool that uses natural language processing to make them more appealing to young and diverse candidates. Using data from 1050 respondents aged 18–35 with education below a postsecondary degree, we found a consistent and statistically significant preference for modified postings, irrespective of the extent or types of changes made. More traditionally disadvantaged respondents (i.e., with lower education, lower incomes, disabilities, women, and unemployed youth) displayed a stronger preference for modified postings. These findings suggest that this tool can help employers recruit disadvantaged youth and bridge the employment gap.

How effective is equality regulation in reducing gender gaps in the labor market?☆

The gender gap in both employment and labour participation has narrowed markedly in recent decades in Spain. However, this decline seems to have slowed and shows a certain persistence. The solution to this problem can respond to different regulatory or non-regulatory policies. This article studies the evolution of the regulatory framework for the formulation of possible policy recommendations. We identify and quantify for the first time when, at what rate and in what regions, Spanish administrations have adopted regulations aimed at combating discrimination against women, achieving gender equality or approved measures related to the work-life balance. The study is based on a text analysis of 297,402 regulations adopted in the period 1996–2022. The indicators reveal the high degree of heterogeneity in terms of the legislation. Non-discrimination legislation was the most developed and frequent, with 11,228 regional regulations and 2590 central administration regulations adopted. We show that the volume of new regulations, mainly those related to discrimination and work-life balance, has contributed to the reduction in gender gaps. Policy actions by administrations should concentrate on these two modes of intervention. The general analysis of regulation in this area also allows for some recommendations in terms of “better regulation” policies, such as the introduction of gender equality assessments (specific regulatory impact reports).

Rural Employment Disparities by Race, Ethnicity, and Region

This FEDS Note explores racial and regional differences in metro-nonmetro employment disparities by looking at employment rates by age, sex, race and ethnicity, and region. It finds substantial differences in the metro-nonmetro employment gap across racial and ethnic groups, with Black or African American and American Indian and Alaska Native men and women having much lower employment rates in nonmetro areas relative to their metro peers.

Investigating low intelligence stereotype threat in adults with developmental dyslexia.

Stereotype threat (ST) is a phenomenon that leads to decreased test performance and occurs when one deals with added pressure of being judged on the basis of stereotyped group membership. The ST effect has been previously investigated in many contexts but not in individuals with dyslexia who are often stereotyped as less intelligent. Prevalent use of intelligence tests in job selection processes and employment gap between people with dyslexia and those without warrants this investigation. Sixty-three participants (30 with dyslexia and 33 without dyslexia; mean age = 33.7; SD = 13.7; 47 F, 13 M, three non-binary) were asked to complete intelligence test typically used in selection processes. All participants were randomly assigned to one of three test instruction conditions: (1) they were told the test was diagnostic of their intelligence (ST triggering instruction); (2) test was a measure of their problem-solving skills (reduced threat); (3) or they were simply asked to take the test (control). Results showed that participants with dyslexia in ST condition performed poorer than those in other conditions and those in the same condition who did not have dyslexia. This study provides preliminary evidence for diminishing effects of ST in individuals with dyslexia.

Employment discrimination and labor market protections for sexual minorities in Brazil

This study estimates the impacts of an employment non-discrimination act (ENDA) for sexual minorities in Brazil. We contribute new evidence on ENDA impacts for sexual minorities in a distinct context from the current literature. Additionally, this is one of few studies to document labor market gaps by sexual orientation in Latin America. In this paper, we first present evidence of labor market gaps in employment, formal sector employment, hours worked, income and hourly earnings for lesbian and gay individuals in Brazil. For the same groups, we then estimate the impact of Brazilian legislation forbidding employment discrimination based on sexual orientation on these same labor market outcomes. Regarding initial pre-policy labor market gaps, conditioning on individual and work-related controls, we see that lesbian women experience wage premiums compared to straight women, while gay men experience wage penalties compared to straight men. We then estimate robust evidence that the implementation of employment protections increased income for gay men. For lesbian women, we estimate evidence of post-policy reductions in employment, but higher income and hourly earnings for those still working. Focusing on a Latin American country, we find many impacts consistent with the more recent existing evidence on ENDAs for sexual minorities.

Covid-19 heterogeneous effects on Italian workers’ incomes: the role of jobs routinization and teleworkability

PurposeThe Covid-19 pandemic appears to have engendered heterogeneous effects on individuals’ labour market prospects. This paper focuses on two possible sources of a heterogeneous exposition to labour market risks associated with the pandemic outbreak: the routine task content of the job and the teleworkability. To evaluate whether these dimensions played a crucial role in amplifying employment and wage gaps among workers, we focus on the case of Italy, the first EU country hit by Covid-19.Design/methodology/approachInvestigating the actual effect of the pandemic on workers employed in jobs with a different degree of teleworkability and routinization, using real microdata, is currently unfeasible. This is because longitudinal datasets collecting annual earnings and the detailed information about occupations needed to capture a job’s routine task content and teleworkability are not presently available. To simulate changes in the wage distribution for the year 2020, we have employed a static microsimulation model. This model is built on data from the Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (IT-SILC) survey, which has been enriched with administrative data and aligned with monthly observed labour market dynamics by industries and regions.FindingsWe measure the degree of job teleworkability and routinization with the teleworkability index (TWA) built by Sostero et al. (2020) and the routine-task-intensity index (RTI) developed by Cirillo et al. (2021), respectively. We find that RTI and TWA are negatively and positively associated with wages, respectively, and they are correlated with higher (respectively lower) risks of a large labour income drop due to the pandemic. Our evidence suggests that labour market risks related to the pandemic – and the associated new types of earnings inequality that may derive – are shaped by various factors (including TWA and RTI) instead of by a single dimension. However, differences in income drop risks for workers in jobs with varying degrees of teleworkability and routinization largely reduce when income support measures are considered, thus suggesting that the redistributive effect of the emergency measures implemented by the Italian government was rather effective.Originality/valueNo studies have so far investigated the effect of the pandemic on workers employed in jobs with a different degree of routinization and teleworkability in Italy. We thus investigate whether income drop risks in Italy in 2020 – before and after income support measures – differed among workers whose jobs are characterized by a different degree of RTI and TWA.

Labour market gender gaps and childcare policies in countries with different social investment strategies

AbstractWe study the role of formal and informal childcare within the ECEC policies for gender employment and pay gaps, considering the life course stages distinctive for childcare tasks. The ECEC policies are framed within the types of social investment strategies identified in the EU countries to picture developments in social investments after 2005. The aggregated EU‐SILC data from 2005 to 2019 for 27 European countries have been used in the panel regression models to uncover how the caring arrangements influence labour market gendered outcomes of women at different ages (15–24, 25–49, 50–65). We find that better provision and use of early education and childcare not only contribute to early investment in human capital but it also facilitates mothers' employment and thus contributes to lowering gender employment and pay gaps. However, better coverage of care for children older than 3 years old results in negative employment effects for grandmothers. These effects vary also across countries, depending on their overall institutional setting depicted by the types of social investment strategies distinguished. Consequently, the ECEC agenda should be extended by addressing the employment of women at the pre‐retirement age. It is crucial not only for reducing gender gap in employment and pay but also in the light of challenges generated by demographic developments—the labour force shrinking and the population ageing processes.

How far from full employment? The European unemployment problem revisited

This paper analyses deviations from full employment in EU countries, compared with the US and the UK. We apply the Beveridge (full-employment-consistent) rate of unemployment (BECRU), derived from the unemployment-vacancies relationship. The BECRU is the unemployment rate that minimises the non-productive use of labour. Based on a novel dataset over 1970–2022, we find full employment episodes in selected EU countries (Germany, Sweden, Austria, Finland) during the 1970s. The European unemployment problem emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, as Beveridgean full employment gaps increased. In the run-up to the global financial crisis, full employment gaps declined, then increased during the Great Recession. Slack in labour markets initially increased during the pandemic. Labour markets became tighter when recovering from the COVID-19 crisis, but few countries hit full employment. We show that Beveridgean full employment gaps are informative in predicting the share of young people who are unemployed and not receiving education or vocational training.

The impact of digital development on non-agricultural employment of rural women: evidence from the broadband China strategy

ABSTRACT In developing countries, the employment of rural women is a crucial component of livelihood issues, with implications for sustainable social development, poverty alleviation, and the realization of gender equality. This study employs a quasi-natural experiment approach based on the Broadband China strategic pilot project. Through constructing a multi-temporal differences-in-differences empirical model, it analyzes the impact of digital development on non-agricultural employment of rural women in China, along with the underlying mechanisms. Empirical results indicate a significant positive effect of digital development on non-agricultural employment for rural women. This impact is more pronounced among younger, highly educated, married, parous, and those residing in main grain-producing regions. Mechanism analysis reveals that, on the labour supply side, digital development enhances the probability of rural women participating in non-agricultural employment by improving their labour force quality. On the labour demand side, digital development fosters the development of emerging industries and improves the employment environment, thereby providing more opportunities for rural women to engage in non-agricultural employment. Based on these findings, this study offers policy implications for advancing digital infrastructure construction and digital economic development in rural China, addressing women’s employment challenges, and narrowing gender employment gaps.

Careers in “woman‐friendly” occupations: Investigating the role of beauty consultant in the era of neoliberalism

AbstractThis article explores the paradoxical nature of beauty consultant careers in Japan. Despite being considered a “woman‐friendly” occupation, it reveals the challenging aspects of this profession in a neoliberal context. Japan's gender gap in employment is stark, with women often engaged in precarious positions, earning significantly less than men. The beauty industry, perceived as advancing women's empowerment, presents opportunities for women in management roles. However, the profession of a beauty consultant demands continuous beauty upkeep, making it a potentially unsustainable career. The research draws on interviews with former and current beauty consultants, supplemented by statistical data and observational research. It highlights their working environment, including entry requirements, training, career advancement, and aesthetic labor demands such as wearing company uniforms, using specific makeup, and maintaining a youthful appearance. Despite a seemingly supportive environment with maternity leave and career advancement prospects, the research reveals the reality of aesthetic labor demands, limited career progression, and challenges faced by women in sustaining their careers after life events like childbirth. Neoliberal norms impact these women, emphasizing self‐fulfillment, maintaining youth and beauty, and working post life events. In conclusion, the research offers insights into the gendered labor dynamics in Japan and broadens understanding of women's labor in the neoliberal context. It calls for a deeper examination of “woman‐friendly” workplaces and underscores the need to recognize the challenges women face in career progression in such environments.

Impact of Digitalization on Employment Pattern in India

Digital enablement has proved to be a game changer all over the world. Earlier the concept of Information and Communication technologies (ICT) was confined mainly to services sector in India, however, with the initiation of Digital India programme in 2015, digitalization has entered in all the walks of human life. Studies round the world depict that digitalization has positive impact on economic growth of a nation by driving entrepreneurial innovation and productivity. Though it has impacted various economic parameters, but the present study will try to analyze its impact on employment in India, with special reference to restructuring of employment and changes in job composition in the aftermath of digitalization. On one hand, it leads to creation of new skilled jobs and on the other hand, it also leads to replacement of routine work and other cyber security risks. Thus, an attempt is made to evaluate the change from the perspective of labor markets and ability of people to adapt to the changing employment pattern in the country and responsibility of education sector to reform according to the changes in required skill sets demanded by the industry. Introduction of digital skill set in higher education curriculum can help in enhancing efficiency and flexibility in labor markets and bridging the digital skill gap in India. The study shows that digitalization has the potential to reduce gender gap in employment and also provide vocational training opportunities to youth which can help in harnessing the benefits of demographic dividend. The Government should aim at reducing digital divide by improving accessibility to internet in both urban and rural areas.

The effect of COVID‐19 on employment: A bibliometric review of a she‐cession

AbstractThe effort to close the gender gaps in employment is one of the priorities worldwide to help address the disparity that exists between men and women in terms of rights and opportunities and to grow the economy in a sustainable way. Several academics and international organizations are interested in understanding its evolution, as well as the reasons and consequences of its existence. In this sense, the crisis alters the labor markets, affecting male and female employment ratios to varying degrees. To determine the foundations and consequences of the COVID‐19 in the labor sphere: we first discuss the most relevant international analysis of employment in pre‐and post‐COVID‐19 times. Second, we synthesize the state of the art of the most relevant literature on gender gap in employment and its drivers, especially those related to the impact of the coronavirus. To achieve this, we revised 731 papers since 1989 until January 2024. The reports of different organizations, as well as scientific studies indicate that the coronavirus has represented a setback for female empowerment. This is evident in higher rates of destroyed employment due to the pandemic impact on more feminized sectors, and women have assumed greater responsibilities at home compared to males. With a sample of 394 articles published between 2020 and January 2024, we employed a bibliometric approach to understand the evolution of scientific research on the subject. Our results provide a theoretical and conceptual framework that facilitates academic progress in understanding gender inequality, as well as practical guidance in identifying gaps.

The impact of school challenges on parental employment among families with children on the autism spectrum

Families raising children on the autism spectrum often experience financial pressures, including lower incomes linked to reduced parental employment participation. Although the literature identifies many school challenges for children on the autism spectrum and their families, the evidence analysing the impact of school challenges on parental employment is sparse. This paper presents findings from in-depth interviews conducted with 19 families living in England, Scotland and Wales to explore their perspectives on the impact of school on parental paid employment. School support and staff understanding can be critical for children on the autism spectrum and their families. Lacking school support was found to contribute to eventual formal and informal school exclusions as well as child school refusal. These manifestations of unmet school needs meant that parents frequently experienced employment interruptions, exacerbating both financial pressures (the risk of losing work pay) and temporal pressures (for example, making up for lost working time).

Gender gap in residential independence and employment of young people

AbstractResidential independence and incorporation into the labour market are two fundamental aspects of the transition of young people to adulthood, and gender differences have been observed in both. This study aims to determine the reasons behind the gender gap seen in young adults leaving their parental home and in finding paid employment. We analyse both the decisions of residential independence and employment jointly, for the sample of men and that of women. We separate the influence of observed factors from the influence of unobserved factors or preferences on the gender gap using decomposition techniques. The analysis is carried out for two points in time; this temporal comparison can help demonstrate whether the recent social changes experienced have modified the behaviour patterns of young people. Our findings indicate that, in accordance with the trend observed in recent decades in Europe, there is a convergence between men and women in the residential independence of young adults in Spain. However, in the labour market, there is still much to be done to reduce the gender gap. One recommendation arising from our study would be to promote policies which further improve the conciliation of family and work life, since this could reduce female labour abandonment associated with starting a family or motherhood.

Nature-Based Interventions for Adults with Developmental Disabilities: A Scoping Review Centering Autistic Adults

Autistic adults often face higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress and reduced levels of quality of life and employment in comparison to their neurotypical peers. Nature-based interventions (NBIs), which utilize outdoor environments and activities for health and wellbeing outcomes, could provide possibilities to meet these various needs. This study therefore aims to identify the extent of academic literature examining NBIs for autistic adults. A scoping review of peer-reviewed articles published between 1985 and 2023 was conducted. Ten databases were systematically searched, and additional hand searching was conducted. Studies involving substantial engagement with an NBI and involving autistic adults (age ≥ 18), or developmental disability if specific diagnosis was not identified, were included. A total of seven studies were identified; however, three studies did not refer to autism specifically, identifying developmental disability more broadly. NBIs were conducted in a variety of international locations and involved a diverse range of activities and outcomes. While NBIs can provide outcomes relevant to employment, health, and wellbeing, multiple limitations and literature gaps are noted. The findings indicate a strong need for further research specific to autism.

The role of the support of top management in gender equality outcomes in higher education and research

In the past decade, there has been increasing attention globally to the institutionalisation of diversity management practices in research, development and innovation (RDI) organisations, as well as the necessity of addressing more effectively various forms of discrimination and inequalities, especially agendas of gender inequality. Although there is extensive research on the different forms, levels, and reasons for gender inequality in RDI organisations, relatively little research has examined how top management members perceive the importance of the former. Our research examines how gender equality outcomes might differ for higher education and research-performing organisations in Hungary when top management strategically supports gender equality. For this purpose, we use –among the indicators by which the European Union (EU) measures progress related to achieving Sustainable Developmental Goal #5 on Gender Equality– the gender employment gap, the gender pay gap, and positions held by women in senior management. We applied a quantitative approach, using an online questionnaire to survey forty-eight higher education institutions and research centres. Our findings build on a comparison of two subsamples; the first in which top management attributes strategic importance to gender equality, and the second in which this strategic approach is lacking. The results show that the «strategic» subsample can primarily be differentiated from the «non-strategic» subsample due to the former’s implementation of significantly more gender equality initiatives at the individual and cultural levels. Concerning initiatives on the structural and organisational level, no significant difference could be found. Furthermore, while a positive linear relationship was found between the number of gender equality practices and the number of positive gender equality outcomes, comparing gender equality outcomes in the two subsamples in more detail indicated fewer significant differences.

Repositioning Cooperative Poultry Farming as a Vocation for the Unemployed Youths

The widespread impact of the Coronavirus pandemic has led to substantial job losses, prompting increased pressure on policymakers, scholars, and non-governmental organizations to generate sustainable employment opportunities for young individuals, particularly within economically disadvantaged communities. This investigation focuses on the feasibility of integrating unemployed youth into established commercial broiler value chains as a means to address the employment gap resulting from the pandemic. Its objective is to raise awareness among governments, institutions, and stakeholders regarding the hurdles faced by young people aspiring to engage in chicken production. To assess the current status of small-scale poultry farming in the studied region, interviews were conducted with small-scale poultry producers in Umhlathuze Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, along with experts from Owen Sithole College of Agriculture. Insights gathered from participants indicate various obstacles to poultry production in the area, such as insufficient digital, limited space, skill-shortage, restricted market access, low profitability, and instances of theft. Consequently, a proposed solution, the 'Collective Farming Model,' is advocated. Moreover, the authors contend that the efficacy of this model hinges significantly on its apprenticeship-based learning system, validated through successful implementation in a prototype initiative.

The disability gap in employment in developing economies: Evidence from the Nigerian labour market

A viable and functional labour market is a sin qua non for economic development. This study thus examines the evidence of disability-related employment discrimination in Nigeria. Utilising the Fairlie decomposition technique in analysing households? data elicited from wave 4 of the General Household Survey, the study found that the disability gap in employment was plausibly existent in Nigeria. The study therefore suggested, among other viable options, that policies aimed at promoting the elimination of physical obstacles in workplaces while also ensuring equitable training opportunities for individuals with disabilities should be rigorously pursued. There is a need to enact more stringent anti- discriminatory policies in Nigeria, with individuals having functional difficulties being the focal target.