Era Of Empire Research Articles

British-Chilean Newspapers

Since the 1820s, Chile and Great Britain have shared a unique relationship that shaped the development of both countries and is still influential today. Despite their importance, however, the historical connections between Britain and Latin America are understudied. This essay analyzes the English-language periodical press published in nineteenth-century Chile, using the newspapers digitized by the authors' Anglophone Chile Newspaper Project (http://anglophonechile.org/news-archive/) to build on the bifocal post-colonial studies established by Fernando Coronil, the transatlantic and transdisciplinary model developed by Julio Ortega and the notion of the contact zone pioneered by Mary Louise Pratt. By tracing the Anglophone periodical press through three stages of development, from the colony's beginnings in commerce, through the era of informal empire, to the eventual hybridization of the Anglo colony with the local culture, the essay maps longstanding interrelations between the global north and south and illuminates the changing dynamics of informal empire.

Transformation of the caryatid motif from Forum Augusti in urban ensembles of Campania and Roman Spain. Semantics, stylistics and iconography

The object of research in this article is the motif of caryatids in the decoration of the Forum of Augustus. Along with other elements, it is repeated in the ensembles of the cities of Roman Spain and region of Campania. It is believed that the August Forum in its decorative program broadcasts the most important ideological markers of the Early Empire era. In particular, the caryatids decorating the attic of the portico are reduced replicas of the famous figures of the Erechtheion. Such a reference is connected with the glorification of Rome's power over Greece in the reproduction of its figurative system. The subject of the study was the process of transformation that occurs with the motif of caryatids in non-classical ensembles. Following the iconographic, stylistic and semantic changes in the caryatid motif in the ensembles of the cities of August Emerita, Tarracon and Puteola, the author suggests possible causes and options for the transformation of these decorative elements. The article focuses on the possible causes of such a transformation, and also attempts to clarify the concept of the "Forum Augusti model", which is found in the research literature in various meanings and variants, through the analysis of a single element. The lack of a single definition of this phenomenon makes it possible to infinitely expand the range of monuments that could be created in imitation of the metropolitan prototype. The author of the article does not support this position, focusing on a few ensembles in which not only the same iconographic schemes occur, but also the logic of the decorative system is preserved. As a result of the research, it was possible to clarify the concept of the Forum Augusti model, which implies not so much the reproduction of the iconography and stylistics of the original.

Empires’ Keif, or Opium Trade on the Tea Route in the Era of Late Empires

This paper offers an analysis of the process by which new borders appeared in Inner Asia during the late imperial period. The research focuses on the borders of Russia, Qing, and Mongolia at the time of the collapse of the Qing Empire and political crisis in Russia, which led to its demise in 1917. The author aims to reveal the influence of these processes on the region referring to transborder smuggling via the transformation of the control and power of central governments. In the author’s opinion, two key factors defined the increase in opium smuggling at the Russo-Mongolian border in 1900–1917. First, political destabilization on the outskirts of the Qing Empire. Second, Cossack regiments were sent from the border to Europe to take part in World War I, thus border control was greatly reduced. The research for this study is based upon the materials of the Russian Imperial customs in the town of Kyakhta, the long-time center of Russo-Chinese trade. Based on archival data, one can trace the volumes and routes of opium smuggling from Iran to Mongolia. The area under consideration is well researched as a cross-border smuggling point; however, the problem of the illicit opium trade is still insufficiently analyzed. This is due to both political obstacles and access to sources. This article is the first attempt at a systematic study of opium trafficking through Kyakhta. The destination of the routes was the town of Maimaicheng, located near Kyakhta and inhabited by Chinese merchants. Opium was also bought by the honghuzi – armed robbers operating near the border. However, when the Civil War broke out in Russia (1917–1922), and the Far Eastern Republic was established, opium supply via the Trans-Siberian Railway declined as this route was no longer safe. Therefore, the notion of regional order and disorder is an important category for this research. This framework offers a way of better understanding Trans-Eurasian relations in the twentieth century.

Vassalage Policy of Venice in the Era of Latin Empire (1204-1261)

Müslümanlar üzerine gerçekleştirilmesi planlanan ancak Ortodoks Bizans İmparatorluğu’nun başkenti Konstantinopolis’te son bulan IV. Haçlı Seferi (1202-1204), Venedik Cumhuriyetine büyük imkanlar sağlamıştır. Zira Haçlılara sağladığı donanma desteği sayesinde seferi başarıya taşıyan güç olarak Venedik müttefiklerinden pek çok ayrıcalık elde etmiştir. Bunun en açık yansıması ise Partitio Romaniae’da görülür. Bizans coğrafyasının Haçlılar ve Venedik tarafından paylaşıldığı bu belge ile Cumhuriyet İyon Denizi’nden Konstantinopolis’e kadar uzanan alanda pek çok irili ufaklı ada ve beldeyi ele geçirmiştir. Belirlenen yerler Doğu Akdeniz ticaret yollarının güvenliğini sağlamak adına oldukça stratejik konuma sahiptir. Ancak Venedik gibi bir deniz cumhuriyetinin birbirinden bu kadar uzak beldeleri elde tutması mümkün değildir. Zira bunun için gerekli olan askerî ve malî kaynaklardan yoksundur. Bundan dolayı Cumhuriyet paylaşım antlaşmasında doğrudan hâkimiyet kurmadığı her beldeye vasal atama yoluna gitmiştir. Merkeze bağlı kalacaklarından emin oldukları için Venediklilere öncelik verilse de başka milletlerden idareciler de vasal olarak Venedik’e biat etmişlerdir. Ancak söz konusu coğrafyanın kaotik durumundan ötürü vasallık politikasının beklenilen etkiyi yaratmadığı açıkça görülmektedir. Bu makalede, Venedik’in vasal atadığı altı farklı bölge mercek altına alınmıştır. Taraflar arasındaki antlaşmalar Türkçeye çevrilerek Cumhuriyetin hangi kıstaslar çerçevesinde politikalar ürettiği ve bunların nasıl sonuçlar doğurduğu incelenmiştir.

FACTUAL CONTENT OF HISTORY IN THE FILM FETIH 1453

This research aims to identify the historical facts present in the film Fetih 1453. It uses historical methods, including heuristic, verification, interpretation, and historiography. The research findings indicate that the film Fetih 1453, directed by Faruk Aksoy, is based on historical facts. The film is set during the Ottoman Empire era, specifically during the rule of Sultan Mehmed II, depicting the story of the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople. The fictional elements present in some characters do not alter the main storyline of the film, which revolves around the conquest of Constantinople. Other aspects examined in the research include the historical facts presented in the film Conquest 1453. Faruk Aksoy portrays historical facts through numerous scenes in the film. The film successfully provides historical information, such as the second ascent of Sultan Mehmed II, the creation of large cannons, the construction of fortresses in Rumelia, the transportation of ships over hills, and the conquest of Constantinople. This film can be used as a reference to understand the depiction of the Ottoman attack on Constantinople through a historical approach, allowing for a sequential examination of events.

The participation of koye Muhammed Mala (the big Mullah) in the political field

Malai Gawra (Mala Mohammadi Koi) is the son of Mala Abdullah, the son of Mala Asaad, the son of Mala Abdulrahman whose family is known as (Jali Zada). He was born in Koya in 1876 and died in 1943. Through a brief look at the history of this family which takes more than 500 years we realize that they have played a great role and participated in social and political events of their time. During 67 years of Malai Gawra's life he witnessed and took part in three different changes and historical stages such as, the end of Ottoman empire era (Abdul Hamid II, Itihad and Taraqi, the English invasion of Kurdistan and Iraq, and the monarchy era in Iraq; Faisal I and his son Ghazi).
 This study aims at analyzing the outlook and participation of Malai Gawra in the political matters and events of his era along with analyzing three foremost stages and political events he contributed in through analytical and descriptive methods.

Identification of Sannyasis in Paintings of Lepakshi Temple

Lepakshi is a small town1 situated in Hindupur taluka of Anantpur district, Andhra Pradesh. It is famous for Veerbhadra temple built during Vijaynagar empire era having monumental temple architecture. The walls and ceilings of the temple were extensively decorated with Vijaynagar style. Now some of the paintings are detoriated. One of the mural paintings in Mahamandapa depicts Dakshinamoorti Shiv, one of the forms of Shiv. There are two sadhus in the same mural whose sects are unidentified yet. In this paper I have tried to prove that these sadhus are Dandi sannyasis of Dashnami shaiva sampradaya.

근대 일본인 산파의 한반도 월경(越境) 실태

In modern Japan, midwives were legally defined as medical professionals. And they were individuals who could operate their own businesses, making them Japanese women who crossed borders to the Korean Peninsula even before colonization. However, research on the crossing borders of midwives has been insufficient due to the approach of conducting studies by separating the research area based on national borders. Studying this will shed light on the labor conditions and way of life of midwives crossing borders, as modern Japanese women workers, and colonizers.
 Therefore, this paper aims to examine the reality of midwives crossing borders in the pre-colonial Korean peninsula through articles of Keijosinpo and statistics by the Japanese Residency-General.
 Through this paper, the following points have been confirmed: First, Japanese midwives were active in Gyeungseong, and Busan at least since the Japanese Legation era. Second, After the establishment of the Japanese Residency-General, some of midwives were sent by the Doujin-kai, which sought to infiltrate medical care in Korea and the Qing Dynasty following the victory of the Russo-Japanese War. Third, At the end of 1906, Busan had the largest number of midwives, but as the Japanese population in Gyeungseong surged, number of midwives also increased in Gyeungseong, and the number of midwives in other cities followed the trend of population growth and the number of females and births. Finally, their income was not evaluated as high, but it was perceived as good because it was recognized as a domestic job that women could do at home.

The Dutch Indies Colonial Government System In Onderafdeling Bonthain 1905-1942

This study aims to determine (i) the transition process from the traditional government system to the colonial government system. (ii) the colonial government administration system, (iii) the influence of the colonial government system on politics and economic activity in Onder Afdeling Bonthain 1905-1942. This study uses a qualitative approach that focuses on historical methods, through the stages of: heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography to find and describe and interpret using data collection techniques through literature and archival reviews. The results of this study indicate that (i) there has been a transition from the traditional government system where the basics of implementing traditional government/kakaraengang are based on customs and royal law. Besides that, With the arrival of the Dutch Colonial, Ada' Sampulo Ruwa officially became Adatregentschapraad as a financial management institution for the local government. (ii) the administrative system developed by the colonial government was fully aimed at supporting the growing paternalistic pattern which had inspired the bureaucratic system in the empire era which was based on the 1922 decentralization law. (iii) the influence of the colonial government system on politics and economic activity in Onderafdeling Bonthain resulted in a process of structural transformation from traditional political and economic structures towards colonial and modern political and economic structures.

Decolonizing inclusion in performing academia: Trans‐inclusion as phronetic border thinking/doing praxis

AbstractIn this paper, inspired by Gloria Anzaldúa, we draw upon our embodied experiences as non‐white scholars from different parts of the South to examine our complicity and responsibility for inclusion in performing a Western, neoliberal, diversity‐oriented, globalizing academia such as the United States' Academy of Management. We refer to the dominating practice of inclusion as universalist inclusion (uni‐inclusion), where a hegemonic includer includes diverse subaltern others while blind to colonial differences. We argue that uni‐inclusion has a dark shadow that perpetuates a “you are with us or against us” sentiment of white male superiority and violence, even as it elides the deep connectedness of epistemic, bodily, and material practices in the praxis of performing academia. Drawing upon our embodied and enacted experiences of tenures at Academy of Management as borderland scholars with relational reflexivity, we propose phronetic border thinking/doing praxis for trans‐inclusion as a non‐essentialist possibility of decolonizing inclusion. We share our understanding of how we have enacted border thinking/doing praxis so that it may provide pointers to pluriversalizing academia. Trans‐inclusion is a neologism we suggest to indicate a liberating praxis for all in an era of decolonization and empire where diverse includers beyond self/other dehumanizing binarism engage within an ethics of caring and co‐existence.

COPRODUÇÃO DE CONHECIMENTO EM GESTÃO EM (A PARTIR DE) PAÍSES E SOCIEDADES EMERGENTES

ABSTRACT In an era of decolonization and empire, the management field embraced the US-led neoliberal counterrevolution and challenged the Eurocentric theory-practice hierarchy to produced relevant knowledge through managed learning theories. This contested reformist and market-centric management revolution (MR) against the threat of “reverse relevance” fostered by emerging/resurging barbarians subalternizes Southern theories-practices of the multifaceted field of development administration-management (DA) and de-develops the global majority by privileging large corporations and transnational elites. MR expanded in the 1990s through a post-Washington Consensus social perspective based on re-Westernalizing whitening appropriation-containment dynamics of developmental neoliberalisms and Southern counter-hegemonic movements informed by dewesternization and decolonial dynamics which challenge-reaffirm racial capitalism structures. In an Age of Development, MR was re-organized in the 2000s in response to “irresponsible” hybridisms in emerging countries and societies triggered by Southern learning-unlearning-relearning dynamics. This article investigates the Southern co-production of relevant knowledge in Brazil through subversive complicity, focused on a privileged organization-school nexus. Analysis shows how managers and researchers (re)mobilize Southern theories-practices to co-produce relevant knowledge from a transformational-reformist perspective. In the end, the article presents discussions and suggestions for collectively re-appropriating Southern relevant knowledge engaged with the ‘other’ in emerging/resurging societies in both the South and North.

The land management policy of the Soviet state in Kazakhstan in the 1920s-1930s (based on materials from the Irtysh region)

This article delves into Soviet land policy and land regulation, focusing on the 1920-1930s. It aims to clarify land use standards in the Irtysh region and analyze land assessment processes, structure, and outcomes. The study also addresses overlooked aspects like class-based conflicts and local disputes over land during development. The primary information source is the Documentation Center for Contemporary History of the Abay Region. It augments historical analysis of land matters, social dynamics, and intercultural interactions with unpublished data. Since 1926, Kazakhstan has been a sought-after resettlement destination, akin to the Russian Empire era. The Irtysh region was a key area for seeking additional land resources. This involved lowering norms for livestock farming, and reallocating surplus lands for agricultural growth and population relocation. The Soviet government sought to rectify the disparities in colonial land policy from the Russian Empire era. Initial attempts were made to grant land to those liberated from colonial oppression and to set land regulations while assessing available resources. However, it was later recognized that these measures were not effectively carried out. In particular, the implementation of land reform in the Irtysh region encountered difficulties and advanced unevenly.

The land management policy of the Soviet state in Kazakhstan in the 1920s-1930s (based on materials from the Irtysh region)

This article delves into Soviet land policy and land regulation, focusing on the 1920-1930s. It aims to clarify land use standards in the Irtysh region and analyze land assessment processes, structure, and outcomes. The study also addresses overlooked aspects like class-based conflicts and local disputes over land during development. The primary information source is the Documentation Center for Contemporary History of the Abay Region. It augments historical analysis of land matters, social dynamics, and intercultural interactions with unpublished data. Since 1926, Kazakhstan has been a sought-after resettlement destination, akin to the Russian Empire era. The Irtysh region was a key area for seeking additional land resources. This involved lowering norms for livestock farming, and reallocating surplus lands for agricultural growth and population relocation. The Soviet government sought to rectify the disparities in colonial land policy from the Russian Empire era. Initial attempts were made to grant land to those liberated from colonial oppression and to set land regulations while assessing available resources. However, it was later recognized that these measures were not effectively carried out. In particular, the implementation of land reform in the Irtysh region encountered difficulties and advanced unevenly.

«Божией милостью» и «общим иждивением»: иконографическая программа и стиль заказных икон калужского купца М.А. Макарова

The article is devoted to two unique icons commissioned by the Kaluga merchant Mikhail Makarov to commemorate the water pipe with a fountain built with his efforts in Kaluga. The first icon was executed in 1829 and solemnly installed in the City Duma of Kaluga. In 1837, M. Makarov ordered to paint its copy, which was kept in the family of his descendants until 1937. Unfortunately, only the last icon has survived and is now reposited in the State Museum of the History of Religion (St. Petersburg). The iconographic analysis and historical evidence of veneration of the lost original allow establishing the intent of the customer. The composition of the icons has no direct protographs, although some icon pieces influenced its formation (for example, Marian iconography of “Joy of all Who Sorrow” and “The Life-Giving Spring”). The non-typical iconographic idea of the customer forced the icon painter to resort to a set of artistic means unusual for icon painting. On the one hand, the masterpiece demonstrates the traditional methods of Kaluga icon painting of the late Nicholas I Empire era, but on the other hand, the influence of the provincial pictorial primitive is clearly noticeable. The icon executed by the merchant Makarov’s order in 1837 is a unique artwork in terms of its iconographic program and artistic performance. Due to the reliable date of creation and the confirmed Kaluga origin, the icon from the State Museum of the History of Religion occupies an important place in the history of Kaluga icon painting.

Sweden, Inc.: Temporal Sovereignty of the Realm and People from the Middle Ages to Modernity

Sweden, Inc.: Temporal Sovereignty of the Realm and People from the Middle Ages to Modernity

Подносная икона с видом Лихвинского Доброго монастыря: датировка, типология, иконография, стиль

The article is devoted to the “podnosnoy” with the view of the Likhvin Dobryi Monastery of Intercession of Theotokos near Kaluga from the collection of the Andrey Rublev Central Museum of Ancient Russian Culture and Art (CMAR): the dating of the monument is specified, its typology is determined, the iconography and style are characterized. Due to the information about chronology of construction transformations carried out in the monastery it is possible to date the icon with the time range of 1818-1832. The lower dating limit is based on the stylistic features of this icon are formed by influence of architectural drawing from 1818. The upper limit determined due to the typological characteristics of the icon as a gift (testimonial icon) for a special important person in memory of the solemn consecration of the renovated monastery ensemble in 1832. The typological characteristic of the monument as a special gift is supported by a number of iconographic and typological analogies. The iconographic program of the icon shows the principles of compositional constructing of "podnosnoy" (tray) and "razdatochnyy"(handout) icons: the pictorial surface is divided into two parts; at the bottom a panoramic view of the city or monastery placed, and at the top of it there are celestial patrons. Taking into account the administrative dependence of the Likhvin Dobryi Monastery from the Kaluga diocese and comparing the icon with a number of dated works close to it in style, it was possible to place them in the circle of works of the Kaluga icons and artistic context of Empire era. A number of these analogies constitutes a separate stylistic line of this regional artistic tradition: it is distinguished by delicate coloring, sentimentality and classical restraint.

MOĞOL İMPARATORLUĞU’NDA İPEĞİN KULLANIM ALANLARI HAKKINDA

İpek, kullanım sahası bakımından geniş bir spektrum çizmektedir. Kimi zaman askeri bir üniforma, kimi zaman flama ya da sancak kimi zaman dinî kıyafetlerde vücut bularak farklı şablonlar halinde karşımıza çıkmaktadır. İpeği siyasi ve kültürel hayatının merkezine koyan devletlerden biri de hiç şüphesiz Moğollardır. Onlar, bu metayı askerî, dinî ve iktisadî hayatta faal bir şekilde kullanmanın yanı sıra sosyal yaşam içerisinde zenginlik ve soyluluğun bir simgesi olarak görmüşlerdir. Dönemin (13. yüzyıl) ana kaynakları ve seyyahlar, Moğolların ipek kumaşı hangi alanlarda kullandığı hakkında ayrıntılı bilgiler vermenin yanı sıra kaynakların bu konudaki tartışmaları makalenin ana konusunu oluşturmaktadır. Özellikle Yuanshi ve Moğol dönemi kaynakları Moğol elitinin kıyafetleri dışında Moğol ordusu içerisinde, çadır ve arabalarda, paralarda da ipekli kumaşların kullanıldığını kaydetmektedirler. James Chambers’ın Moğol ordusunun ipek içlik giyme sebebinin ok yarasını azaltmak olduğuna yönelik tezi konusunda ise herhangi bir kaynakta hiçbir mâlumât bulunmamaktadır. İpek içliklerin bu görevi spekülasyondan öteye gidememekte fakat Moğol ordusunda soft zırh diyebileceğimiz yün ve kaba kumaştan kıyafetler dışında ipekten imâl edilen üniformaların bulunmuş olması olasılık dâhilindedir. Ayrıca Moğol sancaklarında ve ilginç bir şekilde Moğolların kullandığı kalkanların içerisinde ipek iplikler mevcuttu. Moğollar metalden kalkanlar kullansalar da temelde tahta çubukların birbirleriyle örülmesiyle oluşturulan yuvarlak kalkanlar kullanılıyordu. Bu tahta çubuk yapısının içi, muhtemelen kalkanın sağlamlığını arttırmak ve örgü yapısını daha stabil hâle getirmek için ipek ipliklerle sarılmaktaydı. Özellikle Yuanshi’de Moğol muhafız sınıfı Keşig’in giydiği kıyafetler içerisinde ipekli kumaşların büyük bir yekûn tuttuğu anlaşılmaktadır. Moğolların kullandığı büyük otağ diyebileceğimiz yapılarda ve ayrıca Moğol elit sınıfının arabalarında ipekli kumaşlar kullanılabiliyordu. Moğol İmparatorluğu’nun dünya tarihine mühim katkılarından olan “kâğıt para” mevzusu da ipeğin kullanım alanlarını incelerken göze çarpan bir başka konudur. Çünkü Moğolların hakimiyet kurduğu Çin’de bu tip paralar belli bir döneme kadar ipekten de imâl edilebiliyordu. 
 Genel bir çerçeveden bakıldığında ipekli kumaşların ve ipek ipliklerin kullanımı Moğol İmparatorluğu’nda geniş bir aralık oluşturmaktadır. Makalemizde bahis konusu ettiğimiz alanlar dışında örneğin altın renginde veya beyaz renkli ipekli kumaşların kıyafet olarak kullanılmasının sembolik anlamları mevcuttu. Siyasi hedeflere ulaşmanın bir aracısı olarak ipekli kumaş dağıtımı merkezî bir rol oynayabilmekteydi. Moğol soylularını sıradan halktan ayırt etmenin yollarından biri de ipekli kumaşların Moğol elit sınıfı içerisindeki lüks kullanımı, renkler ve desenlerdi. Her gün farklı renkte kıyafetlerin giyildiği ve Moğol elit sınıfı ile halkı birbirine yakınlaştırma amacı güden cisün festivallerindeki ipekli kumaş dağıtımı da Moğollar açısından hem maddî hem de manevi anlamlara sahipti. Bu festivaller yaz şenliklerinde, kış quriltaylarında veya tahta çıkış törenlerinde gerçekleştirilebiliyordu.

The Appendices of Empire: Why Writings from the Colonial Era Need to be Read in their Entirety

Among the many outcomes of the critique of Orientalism and the writings that emerged from the colonial era is the view that most, if not all, works that were published during the era of Empire are tainted by racial prejudice and Orientalist tropes and stereotypes of the non-Western Other. While this may be the case, this paper argues that there are still many reasons for postcolonial scholars to read such works today, from an informed and critical postcolonial perspective. This paper will look at three works by three colonial-era writers – Thomas Stamford Raffles’ The History of Java (1817); John Crawfurd’s Journal of an Embassy from the Governor-General of India to the Court of Ava (1829); and Henry Keppel’s The Expedition to Borneo of the HMS Dido for the Suppression of Piracy (1846) – and show how, through a deep and critical reading of the texts, we can see the contradictions, ironies and uncertainties of the imperial project; and by so doing debunk the notion that Western colonialism in Southeast Asia was a linear, organised and systematic process entirely determined by the colonial powers themselves.

Archeochemistry reveals the first steps into modern industrial brewing

A historical beer, dated to the German Empire era, was recently found in northern Germany. Its chemical composition represents a unique source of insights into brewing culture of the late nineteenth century when pioneer innovations laid the foundations for industrial brewing. Complementary analytics including metabolomics, microbiological, sensory, and beer attribute analysis revealed its molecular profile and certify the unprecedented good storage condition even after 130 years in the bottle. Comparing its chemical signature to that of four hundred modern brews allowed to describe molecular fingerprints teaching us about technological aspects of historical beer brewing. Several critical production steps such as malting and germ treatment, wort preparation and fermentation, filtration and storage, and compliance with the Bavarian Purity Law left detectable molecular imprints. In addition, the aging process of the drinkable brew could be analyzed on a chemical level and resulted in an unseen diversity of hops- and Maillard-derived compounds. Using this archeochemical forensic approach, the historical production process of a culturally significant beverage could be traced and the ravages of time made visible.

Redefining colonial identities in contemporary transnational westerns: Tracker (2010) and Black ’47 (2018)

In this article, I discuss two contemporary films that exemplify the use of the western genre for historical reassessments in varied national contexts: Tracker (2010, dir. Ian Sharp, New Zealand/UK) and Black ’47 (2018, dir. Lance Daly, Ireland). The two films employ similar plot structures, based on the motif of pursuit. In Tracker, set in the aftermath of the Boer wars, a former Boer fighter, now in New Zealand, searches for an assimilated Māori sailor who has been accused of killing a British soldier. In Black ’47, set in Ireland at the time of the Great Famine, an Irishman who served in the British colonial army in the Middle East strives to take revenge on the landowner responsible for the death of his relatives. A mission is organized to prevent him, led by an alienated veteran of the colonial wars. Tracker and Black ’47 show that as a result of colonization various directions of mobility emerged that triggered reinventions of predefined identities within the colonizer/colonized binary. In the two films under discussion, the use of the western helps to address the problem of identity construction by exploring the experience of liminality as a factor behind the dissolution of colonial cultural hierarchies. The protagonists of Tracker and Black ’47 embody the kind of mobility that signifies lasting displacement, seen as a larger syndrome of the era of colonial empires.