Emperor Menelik Research Articles

The Post-war Border Dispute between Ethiopia and Eritrea

The claims and counter-claims over the troubled border between Ethiopia and Eritrea, at the root of the crisis between the two governments, were by no means resolved by the war of 1998–2000. Indeed, when the jointly-formed post-war commission delivered its ruling on the boundaries, its terms were rejected out of hand by Ethiopia. Eritrean border claims rest largely upon the maps drawn up by Italy in 1934, while Ethiopia's claims largely rests on the treaty that Emperor Menelik entered with the Italians in 1908. And this is only to touch upon the ramifications of the tangled dispute. This article provides a critical observation of the claims made by the two governments; it assesses the validity of these claims, explores their strengths and points out their weaknesses. It also shows why the impasse continues to fester, pushing the crisis dangerously close to renewed war, and offers some tentative suggestions on how a lasting solution to the Ethio-Eritrean crisis might be found.

King Menelik's Nephew: Prince Thomas Mackarooroo, aka Prince Ludwig Menelek of Abyssinia

Although little studied or understood, the black impostor occupies an important place in the history of the African diaspora. The present essay examines the imposture of Prince Thomas Mackarooroo, aka Prince Ludwig Menelek of Abyssinia, as an avatar of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, whose military victory over Italian forces at the Battle of Adwa in 1896 made him the black culture hero par excellence at the height of the imperialist era. The black impostor, it is argued, represents a political actor of a certain type.

Emperor Menelik's Attempts towards Political Integration : Case Study from North-Eastern Shoa (Ethiopia), 1889-1906

Emperor Menelik's Attempts towards Political Integration : Case Study from North-Eastern Shoa (Ethiopia), 1889-1906

Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The Reformist Intellectuals of the Early Twentieth Century (review)

Reviewed by: Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The Reformist Intellectuals of the Early Twentieth Century Ezekiel Gebissa Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The Reformist Intellectuals of the Early Twentieth Century (Eastern African Studies) By Bahru ZewdeLondon: James Currey; Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press; and Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press, 2002. Pp. xii, 228. $49.95 Bahru Zewde has written an important and compelling book, which chronicles the long and difficult struggle of early-twentieth-century Ethiopian intellectuals to effect reform in the country. As the subtitle indicates, the book is not primarily a study of an organized movement for reform but rather a survey of the quest of a few individuals who, owing to their exposure to modern education and experience abroad, realized the backwardness of their country and strove to persuade three successive Ethiopian monarchs to adopt and implement their reformist ideas. Given the scattered nature of previous historical writings on the subject, Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia provides a critical framework for understanding Ethiopia's recent political history and explains the roles of ideas and of individuals with ideas who have shaped it. This book is densely packed in its evidentiary basis, and a culmination of ideas previously put forward by Zewde in several articles and presentations. The author engages trenchantly with the existing literature and historiography to create a work that sometimes synthesizes, and at other times departs from, conventional wisdom on the relationship between intellectuals and "progress" in Ethiopia. The book has three main parts. The first part provides "the global and continental framework" in which the story unfolds. Then the author introduces the intellectuals he calls the pioneers, individuals who excelled in traditional church education, guided European travelers in [End Page 127] the production of numerous travel accounts about Ethiopia, and served Ethiopian monarchs in their dealings with the outside world. An important chapter in this section is the story of the expansion of schools, which concludes with the curious but telling observation of one woman (in 1926) that the schools of the early twentieth century, introduced as a vehicle for modernization, had not produced a measurable degree of progress. The second section is a collective biography of Ethiopian intellectuals. The author divides them into the "first generation," a group that was educated at home and abroad during the reign of Emperor Menelik II (1889–1913), and the "second generation," educated abroad through state patronage in the 1920s and 1930s. Together, the two generations comprise the reformist intellectuals whose careers the section traces. The third and most important part of the book analyzes the intellectuals' ideas, accomplishments, and impact on contemporary Ethiopian conditions and long-term developments. Indeed, these two generations of educated Ethiopians were reformists with a broad transformational agenda for their country. They sought to create a constitutional government to ensure Ethiopia's independence (including the independence of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church from Alexandria), modernize the national economy to improve the plight of the downtrodden, and implement legal reforms to guarantee equality. To implement their program, the intellectuals sought to enlighten the ruling monarchs concerning the necessity of reform. They believed they had a chance with Haile Sellassie and worked for him loyally. To their disappointment, the monarch proved to be more interested in using them against his political opponents than in using their ideas to advance the cause of modernity. He began pushing them aside once he consolidated his power. The highpoint of his willingness to implement the intellectuals' reform program was the promulgation of a constitution in 1931. When Italy invaded the country in 1935, most of the educated group were killed, the remnants disillusioned, and the possibility of reform in liberated Ethiopia markedly diminished. After 1941, Haile Sellassie had little use for them and their reformist ideas. After reading about the intellectuals' careers and ideas, one would naturally expect an analysis of the long-term impact of the reform effort. [End Page 128] Zewde devotes a whole chapter to this task, but in an effort to lower expectations, he diminishes the importance of his analysis. He expresses frustration that he cannot assess the reformists' social and political impact, because he cannot establish a "clear and incontrovertible connection between the...

The Italian Invasion, the Ethiopian Empire, and Oromo Nationalism: The Significance of the Western Oromo Confederation of 1936

The Italian Invasion, the Ethiopian Empire, and Oromo Nationalism:The Significance of the Western Oromo Confederation of 1936 Ezekiel Gebissa Background In 1916, a palace coup d'état led by the Shewan nobility brought to power Ras Taffari Mekonnen as the regent and heir apparent to the throne of the Ethiopian empire.1 Soon Taffari began to take measures to make himself the de facto ruler of the empire. In the 1920s, he focused on removing Menelik's stalwarts from office and cutting them off from their power base. After his accession to the throne in 1930 as Emperor Haile Sellassie, he embarked on a program of political centralization to end the limited autonomy of the regions that had maintained semi-independent status since their incorporation into Ethiopia. As he worked to concentrate power in his own hands, Haile Sellassie reversed the political arrangements of Emperor Menelik. The latter had ruled through a combination of coercion and consent, appointing military rulers where he encountered resistance and granting internal autonomy to hereditary rulers who agreed to accept his suzerainty peacefully and pay annual tributes.2 Haile Sellassie found his predecessor's administrative system incongruent with his vision of an empire ruled from the center by an all-powerful sovereign. He abolished the semi-independent status of such regions as Tigray, Gojjam, and Jimma, and appointed only Shewans to rule the subordinate regions.3 [End Page 75] When Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, the deposed hereditary rulers felt that their time had come to settle scores. They defected to the Italian side in the hope of regaining their positions. Indeed, the Italians appointed them as governors of their former domains. In 1941, when Haile Sellassie returned to power, they were once again excluded from power. In response, they made common cause with the oppressed people in their regions and rebelled against an apparently "irreversible centralization under the hegemony of the Shewan Amhara nobility."4 In Oromo areas, grievances against the initial conquest and loss of autonomy ran deep. Ever since they had been conquered by Menelik, Oromos had expressed their rejection of Abyssinian rule through acts of defiance, ranging from embracing Islam to outright rebellion. When Italy invaded Abyssinia, Oromos seized the moment to reclaim their lost freedom and sovereign existence. In 1935, the Raya and Azeboo Oromos attacked the Abyssinian armies going to and returning from the Battle of Maichew. Even the fleeing emperor felt threatened enough to avoid passing through their land. In 1936, the Oromo of Jimma attacked and expelled Amhara officials and thereby demonstrated their rejection of colonial rule. In western Abyssinia, the hereditary rulers of the Oromo declared the establishment of an independent polity called the Western Oromo Confederation (WOC) and offered themselves as a mandate territory of the League of Nations.5 These acts of resistance have not been adequately documented in Ethiopian historiography. The neglect is not due to a lack of adequate sources. Contemporary observers have left a thorough record of events in the Oromo areas during the Italian invasion. British consular reports from Goré, for instance, maintain that several Oromo regions took advantage of the Italian invasion to reclaim their lands. According to one such report, the various factions (provinces) were always on the point of open war . . . with the Taffari party which was only a family government operating in Addis Ababa as events clearly proved on the Italian invasion every single province either going into open rebellion like GOJAM-TIGRE and OGADEN or passive rebellion by refusing to take part in the war like the western Galla provinces and the [End Page 76] southern provinces held in subjection with a light Amhara garrison of feudal soldiery holding the occupied provinces in serfdom. These Amhara garrisons were withdrawn to Northern front and the whole country has been seized by whatever tribe the province contains.6 As the above statement shows, most of the Oromo resistance movements have always sought freedom from Amhara domination, restoration of their land, and recognition of their cultural identity and political autonomy. These objectives ran contrary to the political desires of the Ethiopianist elite to maintain Ethiopia as a unified country. Documenting Oromo-led movements as worthy historical phenonema...

Printing, publishing and book development in Ethiopia up to the era of emperor Menelik II

Printing, publishing and book development may be considered as the prerequisites for the development of any library and information system in any society. This paper attempts to cover publishing in Ethiopia from 1500–1900. During this period numerous ecclesiastical and a few original works by Ethiopians and foreigners had appeared in Ge'ez and in other dialects. The role of the missionary societies in book development was also significant. Most of the products of the printing presses were kept either in church archives or in Royal Libraries. The establishment of any modern type libraries was utterly neglected. Consequently, most of the literate population of that time had no opportunity to find out what was being published in their own country.

Printing, Publishing and Book Development in Ethiopia up to the Era of Emperor Menelik II

Printing, publishing and book development may be considered as the prerequisites for the development of any library and information system in any society. This paper attempts to cover publishing in Ethiopia from 1500–1900. During this period numerous ecclesiastical and a few original works by Ethiopians and foreigners had appeared in Ge’ez and in other dialects. The role of the missionary societies in book development was also significant. Most of the products of the printing presses were kept either in church archives or in Royal Libraries. The establishment of any modern type libraries was utterly neglected. Consequently, most of the literate population of that time had no opportunity to find out what was being published in their own country.

L'espace politique éthiopien

Restée indépendante des puissances coloniales au xixe siècle, l'Ethiopie n'a cependant pas échappé à l'impératif et à l'arbitraire des limitations frontalières imposées par l'Europe. L'actualité nous le rappelle constamment. Des provinces entières d'Ethiopie revendiquent aujourd'hui une autre identité — érythréenne, oromo ou Somalie — alors que le gouvernement d'Addis- Abeba, fort d'une tradition très ancienne, leur oppose l'indivisibilité du territoire légué par ses prédécesseurs. Mieux encore, beaucoup d'Éthiopiens estiment que leur pays n'est pas à la mesure de l'Empire que les souverains ambitionnaient légitimement d'unir dans la seconde moitié du xixe siècle, parce qu'il est amputé d'une partie de son domaine, maintenant placé sous la souveraineté des Etats voisins, comme les Républiques de Djibouti et de Somalie.

Some Amharic sources for modern Ethiopian history, 1889–1935

Emperor Menelik's reign (1889–1913) opens a new era in the kind of sources that the historian has at his disposal for the analysis of modern Ethiopian history. During his reign printing presses were set up in the country and spurred a gradual growth in the more widespread use of Amharic, not just as the spoken but also the written language of the imperial court. This is not to say that the Gә'әz literary tradition in Ethiopia disappeared altogether, for some chronicles in Gә'әz continued to be written after 1935, often very similar in form and content to those which have survived for the Gondarine and earlier periods of Ethiopian history. However, Menelik's reign, and the official chronicle of it by Gäbrä Sәllase, mark a significant departure, not least because the chronicle was written in Amharic and not in Gә'әz. There are a few earlier published literary works in Amharic, the songs of the kings of the fourteenth century being the most significant, but it should be emphasized that the Gә'әz tradition continued parallel to the Amharic in the form of tarikä nägäst, i.e the history of kings. Some of these are now preserved at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies at Addis Ababa, like the Gondarine tarikä nägäst which belonged to Nәgus Wäldä Giyorgis, the valuable biography of the grandson of Emperor Tewodros (1855–68), Mäšäša, and a published biography of Ras Makonnen.

Les Voyageurs européens dans le Sud-Ouest éthiopien (1890-1910)

1890-1910 : a course of twenty years when Emperor Menelik II extended his sovereignty over countries which today represent half, if not more, of the national territory. The restoration of the old Christian Empire of Zara Yacob (1434-1468) was made at the expense of French, English, Italian and Russian colonial conquests. In actual fact, the territories conquered by Menelik were coveted by European Powers seeking to control an unknown but supposedly rich land. Exploration and conquest were on the same footing. The Omo basin, unheard of in 1890, was explored, conquered and pacified during the twenty years that followed. The accounts of travellers — either scientists or ofFicers — testify of the fragility of colonial politics, as opposed to Menelik's achievements. Indeed, the few English and Italian attempts to annex South-West Ethiopia failed to stem Menelik's advance, helped, as he was, by the French and Russians. Apart from some exceptions — Bottego for instance — , most travellers were content with giving brief description for the benefit of the prosperous Geographical Societies of the time. In matter, thèse accounts were rather poor, but as a whole they were unintentionally typical of Ethiopian dynamism in baffling impérialiste plots.

Queen Victoria's phonograph message to the Emperor Menelik of Ethiopia

In BSOAS, xxxii, 2, 1969, my friend and colleague, Dr. Abraham Demoz of the Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, published the Amharic text of a phonograph message which the Emperor Menelik II (1889–1913) and the Empress Taitu sent to Queen Victoria.

The Judicial System of Ethiopia: From ‘Empire’ to ‘Military Junta’ to ‘Federal Democratic Republic’: A Legacy Perspective

Ethiopia in her journey from an imperial regime to a Federal Democratic Republic polity has witnessed different judicial systems that has emerged from, and premised on, the then prevalent political philosophy and ideology. During the era of Emperor Menelik II, the judiciary was considered a part of the executive as the Ministry of Justice. Afe Negus, was the head of the judges and was entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring that the judges delivered justice in accordance with the ‘Fetha Negast’. Emperor Haile Selassie I, who took keen interest in codification of the laws, promulgated two Constitutions in 1931 and 1955 respectively during his reign and injected the idea of independence of judiciary and adjudication according to law. However, military junta, which suspended operation of the Revised Constitution (1955), made the judicial system amenable to executive and hence a crippled institution. The contemporary three tier judicial system established under, and governed by, the FDRE Constitution (1995) asserts judicial independence and justice according to law. But the constitutional paradigm, contrary to the constitutional assertion, does not assure structural and functional autonomy to courts and through a couple of calculative designs, leaves scope for executive interference in the administration of justice. This paper not only traces the judicial system of Ethiopia which is in vogue, but also highlights the inherent defects in its structural and functional facets and pleads for apposite reforms.

Emperor Menelik's phonograph message to Queen Victoria

In 1898 Queen Victoria sent a recording of her voice to the Emperor Menelik of Ethiopia and his Queen, Itege Taitu, together with some phonograph apparatus. The following year Menelik and Taitu returned the compliment by making recordings of their voices and sending them to Queen Victoria. The latter recordings have been preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle, but Queen Victoria's recording was later destroyed on her instructions. The text of her message has, however, been preserved and is reproduced here. The message was dated Osborne, 8 August 1898:‘I, Victoria, Queen of England, hope your Majesty is in good health. I thank you for the kind reception which you have given to my Envoys, Mr. Rodd and Mr. Harrington. I wish your Majesty and the Empress Taitou all prosperity and success, and I hope that the friendship between our two Empires will constantly increase’.

The Anglo-Ethiopian treaty of 1902

The Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1902 was designed to determine the frontier between the Sudan and Ethiopia. In an annex to this treaty the British, Italian, and Ethiopian Governments embodied a number of agreed modifications to the frontier between the Sudan and Eritrea (Italy's colonia primogenita) as well as to that between Ethiopia and Eritrea. While the latter survived until the Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935–6 (and was re-established, in substance, by the British Military Administration in 1941 subsisting until the Ethiopian-Eritrean federation in 1952), the Sudan-Ethiopian frontier has remained substantially unchanged to the present day. The treaty was the culmination of protracted negotiations between the Emperor Menelik and the British Agent in Ethiopia, Lt.-Col. J. L. Harrington.

Menelik and the Foundation of Addis Ababa

Addis Ababa, today the most populous city on the eastern side of Africa between Cairo and Johannesburg, was founded by the Emperor Menelik II in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The event, which was important in modern Ethiopian history as a landmark in the reorganization and modernization of the State, is not without interest in the wider perspective of the African continent where it provides a unique example of rapid urban growth in an area not under European control. Whereas in such areas the capital was the result of an attempt to create a European type of city in a colonial environment, Addis Ababa represented an attempt by an African ruler to forge something new in his country's history by grafting modern institutions on a traditional living organism.

Ethiopia and the War From the Ethiopian Point of View1

A clear view of Ethiopia as it is to-day can, I think, only be seen against a background of the history of the country during the last fifty years, that is to say, from the time when Lord Napier led his expedition there in 1868. That expedition is of interest in the present situation for two points. It has several times been mentioned to me that Lord Napier had no trouble in crossing the country, which is much the same country the Italians are crossing in the North, and that therefore it was hard to understand why the Italians should meet with so much difficulty. I think the answer is that the Italians are being received there not exactly as friends, and they are unquestionably going to meet with very severe opposition indeed. Lord Napier, on the other hand, was hailed by most of the natives as a deliverer from the Emperor Theodore, who was a despised and hated tyrant at that time. The other interesting point about the Napier expedition is the effect that it had on Abyssinian opinion of the English people. More than once it has been pointed out to me by the natives that Lord Napier, whose expedition was the last occasion on which they really had any considerable dealings with the British, had said when he entered Ethiopia that, when he had got to Magdala and released the European prisoners there, he would immediately evacuate the country. The Abyssinians add that when Lord Napier's expedition had been successful and the English were in a position to follow up their advantage to any extent they wished, they were as good as their word; they immediately left the country, and the Abyssinians say to this day that the word of the English is to be trusted. After the Emperor Theodore's death, John came to the throne of Abyssinia. His reign was not in any way spectacular and twenty years later he was killed in battle by the Moslem Dervishes. Then the Emperor Menelik II came to the throne. Menelik was the first man to try to centralise the government