Emotion Regulation Strategies Research Articles

Examining the moderating role of depressive symptoms on the dynamic interplay between cognitive reappraisal and rumination: Evidence from experience sampling

The dynamic view of emotion regulation (ER) posits that ER is a temporally dynamic process unfolding over time. Cognitive reappraisal and rumination, two extensively investigated ER strategies, are implicated in depression. However, it remains unclear whether these two strategies exhibit reciprocal relations in real-world contexts, and whether such relations vary across baseline depressive symptoms. To address this, we conducted two experience sampling studies and applied residual dynamic structural equation modeling (RDSEM). Results of the RDSEM revealed significant bidirectional associations between cognitive reappraisal and rumination in the Chinese sample, whereas in the Belgian sample, only a unidirectional relationship was found where rumination predicts subsequent cognitive reappraisal. Additionally, both strategies demonstrated stable autoregressive effects. Interestingly, higher depressive symptoms predicted a lower autoregressive effect of cognitive reappraisal within the Chinese sample, while this was not the case in the Belgian sample. These findings highlight the importance of targeting factors such as dynamics in ER and its relationship with depression symptoms.

Exploring the Relationship between Decision-Making Styles and Emotion Regulation: A Study of Police Officials in Portuguese Public Security

In public security policing, where pressure is constant, effective decision-making and emotion regulation are critical, especially for leaders. These processes significantly impact upon work results, performance, officials’ health, employee well-being, and the organizational environment. This study aims to broaden the understanding of decision-making styles and emotion-regulation strategies used by police officials in the Portuguese Public Security Police (PSP). We surveyed 138 Portuguese high-ranking police officials using two self-response questionnaires, namely the Emotion Regulation in the Workplace (ReTrab) and the Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire (MDMQ), both translated, adapted, and validated for the Portuguese police context. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted, followed by correlations to explore the relationship between emotion-regulation strategies and decision-making styles. Finally, through a regression analysis, the potential impact of this relationship was assessed. The results reveal that specific emotion-regulation strategies, except for adaptive ones, significantly influence and modify the decision-making styles of PSP officials. Dysfunctional and maladaptive emotion-regulation strategies lead to less adaptive decision-making styles, while functional strategies promote more adaptive styles. These findings have theoretical and practical implications, offering valuable insights for targeted training programs and interventions in the law-enforcement sector, benefiting the police personnel, the communities they serve, and public perceptions about police.

EEG-based emotional valence and emotion regulation classification: a data-centric and explainable approach

Emotion classification using electroencephalographic (EEG) data is a challenging task in the field of Artificial Intelligence. While many researchers have focused on finding the best model or feature extraction technique to achieve optimal results, few have attempted to select the best methodological steps for working with the dataset. In this study, we applied two different theoretical approaches based on the noise of the dataset: curriculum learning and confident learning. Curriculum learning involves presenting training examples to the model in a specific order, starting with easier examples and gradually increasing in difficulty. This approach has been shown to improve model performance. Confident learning is a method for identifying and correcting label errors in datasets. By identifying and correcting these errors, confident learning can improve the performance of machine learning models trained on noisy datasets. We then applied the Integrated Gradient technique in order to assess the explainability of each model. Our aim was to explore the impact of different models and methods on emotion classification performance using EEG data. We collected and used an EEG dataset in which participants rated the emotional valence of positive and negative pictures while performing an emotion regulation (ER) task, comparing a control condition (Look) with two ER strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. We performed a multilabel classification to identify emotional neutrality or polarization of emotional valence (both positive and negative) rated by participants and the emotion regulation strategy adopted during the task. We compared the performance of models trained on three datasets selected based on label noise and evaluated their suitability for this task. Our results suggest different patterns based on the architecture used for feature importance, highlighting both advantages and criticisms.

You Are Tilted!: Leveraging Tabletop Gaming to Manage Tilt and Strengthen Team Dynamics in Esports

Tilt, characterized by heightened frustration, is a prevalent issue in esports, significantly impacting team dynamics and player well-being. Traditional Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) solutions often focus on individual strategies, overlooking the team-based nature of esports. This study introduces 'TILTED', a tabletop game co-designed with youth esports players, aimed at fostering open communication and empathy to collectively manage tilt. Findings from four user testing sessions with collegiate esports teams reveal that team-based interventions like 'TILTED' can enhance team cohesion and provide effective strategies for emotional regulation. The game facilitates understanding and empathy among teammates for managing emotions and maintaining a positive team atmosphere. Our research underscores the importance of resetting strategies and shared mental models in helping to mitigate tilt and offers design implications for future team-based interventions to enhance team dynamics and tilt management strategies as a team.

Romanian Adaptation and Psychometric Validation of the Behavioral Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (BERQ-RO)

AbstractThe aim of the present study was to adapt the Behavioral Emotion Regulation Questionnaire to the Romanian population and assess its psychometric proprieties. Participants included 399 adults, aged between 18 and 67 years old (M = 25.30, SD = 9.20; 83% females). Related to reliability and construct validity, results showed good indices. Additionally, results replicated the original five-factor structure, including seeking distraction, withdrawal, actively approaching, seeking social support and ignoring. These subscales showed good criterion validity, having significant associations with cognitive emotion regulation strategies, stress, anxiety and depression, and positive and negative affectivity. Furthermore, in terms of predictive validity, seeking distraction and actively approaching negatively predicted six months later symptoms of depression, withdrawal positively predicted six months later symptoms of depression and anxiety, while actively approaching negatively predicted six months later stress. These findings highlight that the Romanian version of the BERQ could be a helpful tool to assess emotion regulation strategies among adults.

Mind-Body Classroom Strategies: Techniques to Reduce Elementary Student Stress Following Active Shooter Drills

Active shooter drills are widely used in schools throughout the United States, with more than 92% of public schools having an active shooter plan. These drills can increase student stress and anxiety and can have a variety of negative effects, such as somatic complaints, anxiety, poor self-regulation of emotions and behaviors, risk for depression, and prevalence of obesity and eating disorders. This article describes the efficacy of physical activity breaks, mindful breathing techniques, and emotional regulation strategies to reduce stress reactivity and enhance recovery in elementary-age students following active shooter safety drills. A list of example activities is provided for each of the three stress management categories. Each of the activities can be adapted to various developmental levels (i.e., K-12), settings (i.e., classroom, hallway, outdoors), and time availability (i.e., one minute to 10 minutes). The strategies may also be utilized following other emergency drills or during other times of high student and classroom stress.

Parental control and adolescent social anxiety: A focus on emotional regulation strategies and socioeconomic influences in China.

An individual's social adaptation, which is influenced by both internalizing and externalizing factors, depends on social anxiety. We proposed that the connection between parental psychological control and social anxiety among middle school students was mediated by negative emotion response-focused strategies and moderated by socioeconomic status (SES). We collected data from 1343 Chinese students from 12 to 16 years old (M = 13.3, SD = 0.96) by applying the questionnaire of parental psychological control scale, social anxiety scale and negative emotion response-focused strategies scale. The findings demonstrated that parental psychological control, including father and mother psychological control, was positively associated with social anxiety and that the relationship between parental psychological control and children's social anxiety was mediated by negative emotion response-focused strategies. Meanwhile, SES played a moderating role in the relationship between children's negative emotion response-focused strategies and social anxiety. The findings also suggest that we should pay more attention to the psychological status and social interaction of children with lower SES.

Decoding ruminative reflection in healthy individuals: The role of triple network connectivity

Ruminative reflection has been linked to enhanced executive control in processing internally represented emotional information, suggesting it may serve as an adaptive strategy for emotion regulation. Investigating the neural substrates of reflection can deepen our understanding of its adaptive properties. This study used network-based statistic (NBS)-Predict methodology to identify resting state functional connectivity (FC)-based predictors of ruminative reflection in a healthy sample. Our results showed that reflection in healthy subjects was predicted by FC within and between the default mode network (DMN), fronto-parietal network (FPN), and salience network (SN). Notably, FC within the FPN and SN, as well as between the FPN and DMN, contributed more significantly to the predictive model. These results underscore the greater influence of FPN and SN connectivity in predicting reflection, providing empirical evidence that increased executive control over internal emotional representations is integral to adaptive reflective processes. Moreover, the triple-network model, particularly the FPN-DMN coupling, emerges as a crucial predictor of ruminative reflection, highlighting the importance of coordinating self-relevant and goal-directed processing in reflective mechanisms. These identified connectivity fingerprints may offer insights into the role of reflective processes in facilitating recovery from depression.

Differences and Similarities in the Use of Nine Emotion Regulation Strategies in Western and East-Asian Cultures: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Differences in emotion regulation strategies usage between Western and East-Asian individuals have been shown to exist. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we aimed to synthesize differences and similarities of the spontaneous use frequency of nine emotion regulation strategies (suppression, reappraisal, acceptance, avoidance, rumination, mindfulness, distraction, expression, and self-compassion), in Western and East-Asian individuals. Quantitative comparison studies were identified through systematic and snowball searches. Meta-analysis was undertaken with the meta package from R. Nineteen articles involving 21 studies were included in the systematic review and 20 studies were included in the meta-analysis. These articles were published from 2002 to 2023. The results showed that East-Asian individuals use more suppression ( d = −0.29) and avoidance ( d = −0.57) compared with Western individuals, with a medium effect size. No significant difference was observed in reappraisal, rumination, and expression usage. Future comparison studies across Western and East-Asian cultures should consider focusing on the use of self-compassion, acceptance, distraction, and mindfulness, which are understudied in the field of emotion regulation. Moreover, to improve the methodology, address inadequacies in analyzing cultural measurement invariance, distinguishing between emotional valences, and reporting the ethnicity of participants.

Translating theoretical insights into an emotion regulation flexibility intervention: assessing effectiveness

ABSTRACT Objective: Traditional research often categorizes emotion regulation strategies as adaptive or maladaptive, overlooking crucial situational and individual differences that dictate their efficacy. The literature highlights the need for a more nuanced approach, like the role of emotion regulation flexibility. Despite its importance, research on developing and testing interventions that promote this flexibility is scarce. Addressing this gap, our study designed and tested an “Emotion Regulation Flexibility Booster Program” (ERFBP). We aimed to assess its efficacy in improving emotion regulation flexibility (ERF) and its impact on various mental health indicators. Method: We recruited 153 participants with low emotion regulation flexibility, randomly assigning them to experimental, control, and no-treatment groups. The experimental group was provided with an intervention based on an ERF model. The control group received sessions on study habits, whereas no-treatment group received no training. Results: The analysis indicated that participants in the ERFBP group exhibited significant changes in ERF, subjective wellbeing, and emotion regulation goals and psychological distress compared to baseline measurements and post-intervention scores of other two groups. Conclusion: These findings support the effectiveness of the ERFBP in enhancing ERF and wellbeing. However, further research must confirm these findings across diverse contexts and populations.

The hidden link: dysmenorrhea, emotion regulation, and attitudes toward marriage in female nursing students.

Menstrual pain, or dysmenorrhea, can cause physical discomfort and mood swings, potentially impacting the attitudes of female nursing students toward marriage. Effective emotion regulation strategies are essential for managing stress and shaping their perspectives on marriage. This study sought to investigate the relationship between dysmenorrhea, emotional regulation skills, and attitudes toward marriage among female nursing students. A cross-sectional survey was conducted using a stratified sample of 504 female nursing students from four academic years. The study used a combination of the Working Ability, Location, Intensity, Days of Pain, Dysmenorrhea (WaLIDD) Questionnaire, the Marital Attitude Scale, and the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire to assess various factors among the participants. The Pearson correlation coefficient was utilized to examine the relationships among the three primary variables. Additionally, linear regression analysis was employed to forecast attitudes toward marriage based on factors such as dysmenorrhea, residence, family type, regularity of the menstrual cycle, and age at menarche. The findings of the study are significant, revealing a negative correlation between dysmenorrhea and marital attitudes (r = -0.105, p = 0.019). Dysmenorrhea exhibited minimal and non-significant correlations with emotion regulation strategies, including cognitive reappraisal (r = -0.006, p = 0.898) and expressive suppression (r = 0.013, p = 0.774). In contrast, marital attitudes significantly influenced emotion regulation (β = -0.169, p < 0.001). Moderation analyses indicated significant effects of various factors on marital attitudes, including residence (β = -0.5136, p = 0.0478), family type (β = 5.9923, p = 0.0060), regularity of the menstrual cycle (β = 6.1262, p = 0.0014), and age at menarche (β = 1.5521, p = 0.0491). A significant negative correlation between dysmenorrhea and certain attitudes, specifically optimistic and realistic marital attitudes, was found. This indicates that higher levels of dysmenorrhea are associated with less favorable perspectives in these domains. Additionally, the study demonstrates that negative marital attitudes were linked to poorer emotional regulation. This suggests that individuals with more pessimistic views about marriage may face challenges in effectively managing their emotions. These results underscore the intricate connections between physical health, attitudes, and emotional well-being. They highlight the need to address dysmenorrhea within nursing education and practice, considering its broader psychological impact.

Emotion regulation motives in adolescence shape regulatory strategy use.

Emotion regulation (ER) motives (i.e., the reasons individuals regulate their emotions) are key factors influencing the development of adolescents' ER abilities. However, age- and gender-related trends in adolescents' ER motives, as well as their impact on the use of ER strategies, remain unclear. We recruited 5629 participants from two schools in Southwest China (M = 15.18, SD = 1.73; 45.11% male) to complete the Emotion Regulation Goals Scale and the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Linear and polynomial regression analyses were conducted to examine age- and gender-related differences in ER motive patterns. We then tested whether different patterns of ER motives were also associated with participants' habitual use of two common ER strategies. This study revealed nonlinear and diverse age-related differences in adolescents' contra-hedonic and pro-social motives, with notable fluctuations in contra-hedonic motives. Boys exhibited higher levels of contra-hedonic motives, while girls showed higher levels of performance motives. Moreover, ER motives were significantly and broadly associated with individuals' habitual use of reappraisal and suppression. More specifically, pro-hedonic motives were associated with greater use of reappraisal, while contra-hedonic motives were linked to higher levels of suppression. Furthermore, instrumental motives (i.e., performance, pro-social, and impression management) were positively related to both reappraisal and suppression. These findings enhance our understanding of how adolescents' ER motives vary by age and gender, as well as the crucial role different ER motives play in shaping patterns of ER strategy use.

‘Round outside and square inside’: language teachers’ emotion regulation strategies in crosscultural teaching contexts

ABSTRACT With the expansion of transnational language learning and teaching, chances have increased for language teachers to work in crosscultural teaching contexts and regulate their emotions in the face of crosscultural emotional challenges. This study investigated the emotion regulation strategies employed by language teachers in crosscultural teaching contexts. Through a qualitative multi-case study with six Chinese as a second language (CSL) teachers in China, data collected from semi-structured interviews, class observations, and teacher reflective journals revealed seven emotion regulation strategies of three categories: restraining and pretending of surface acting; reframing, reconcentrating, and repositioning of deep acting; releasing and relieving of genuine expressing. These three categories reflected language teachers’ three experiences to cultural differences: deliberate minimisation, reflective acceptance, and communicative adaptation. The identified emotion regulation strategies also revealed two paradoxes existing in teacher-student interactions in crosscultural language teaching, which can be summarised as the Chinese idiom ‘round outside and square inside’. The study also proposed practical implications for language teachers’ emotion regulation and offered suggestions for institutions concerning teacher emotion in crosscultural teaching contexts.

The role of caregiver emotion regulation in youth mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal study.

The COVID-19 pandemic has presented youth and families with a broad spectrum of unique stressors. Given that adolescents are at increased risk for mental health and emotional difficulties, it is critical to explore family processes that confer resilience for youth in the face of stress. The current study investigated caregiver emotion regulation (ER) as a familial factor contributing to youth ER and risk for psychopathology following stressful life events. In a longitudinal sample of 224 youth (M age = 12.65 years) and their caregivers, we examined whether caregiver and youth engagement in ER strategies early in the pandemic mediated the associations of pandemic-related stress with youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms six months later. Leveraging serial mediation analysis, we demonstrated that caregiver and youth rumination, but not expressive suppression or cognitive reappraisal, mediated the prospective associations of pandemic-related stress with youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Greater exposure to pandemic-related stressors was associated with greater caregiver rumination, which, in turn, related to greater rumination in youth, and higher levels of youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms thereafter. Family interventions that target caregiver ER, specifically rumination, may buffer against the consequences of stress on youth engagement in maladaptive ER strategies and risk for psychopathology.

Fears of positive and negative evaluation and their within-person associations with emotion regulation in adolescence: A longitudinal analysis.

Fear of positive evaluation (FPE) has recently emerged as an important aspect of social anxiety, alongside fear of negative evaluation. These evaluation fears peak during adolescence, a developmental stage that is also often accompanied by difficulties in emotion regulation, thereby increasing young individuals' vulnerability to mental disorders, such as social anxiety. We aimed to examine the longitudinal within-person associations between fears of evaluation, social anxiety, and three emotion regulation strategies (i.e., acceptance, suppression, rumination) in adolescents. Data were collected from a sample of 684 adolescents through an online survey three times over the course of 6 months and were analyzed using random intercept cross-lagged panel models. At the between-person level, FPE was linked to all three emotion regulation strategies, whereas fear of negative evaluation and social anxiety were associated with acceptance and rumination. At the within-person level, difficulties in accepting emotions predicted FPE, suppression predicted social anxiety, and social anxiety predicted rumination over time. These findings reveal complex interdependencies between emotion regulation, social anxiety, and evaluation fears, both reflecting individual differences and predicting changes within individuals, and further elucidate the developmental trajectory of social anxiety in adolescence.

Analyzing the relationships among psychosocial variables associated with resilience

Potentially Traumatic Events (PTEs) are common in current society, including college life. When exposed to PTE, stress reactions are greatly heterogeneous, and what contributes to psychological resilience is not well known. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the relationships among the antecedents, defining attributes, and consequences of resilience in a sample of 450 college students. Students completed an online questionnaire about PTEs, ego-resiliency, emotion regulation strategies and flexibility, perceived social support, mental health outcomes, and Sense of Coherence (SOC). The majority were young (average age = 20.4 years), White/Caucasian (80.0 %), and single (98.0 %) females (79.3 %). First, the bivariate correlation analyses indicated PTEs and emotion regulation suppression were negatively associated with some but not all variables at a significant level. Second, simple linear regression indicated the number of PTEs significantly predicted negative mental health outcomes (β = −2.98, t = −0.63, p < .001) and SOC (β = −2.05, t = −5.69, p < .001). Third, multiple regression analysis revealed that social support significantly moderated the relationship between PTEs and mental health outcomes, F (14, 382) = 14.13, p < .001. More specifically, perceived affectionate social support moderated the relationship between PTEs and mental health outcomes among women. Nurses may deliver interventions to promote these resilience factors, such as social support, and the results suggest that young women may benefit more from perceived affectionate social support after being exposed to PTEs. Further studies, ideally with a longitudinal design, are needed to understand resilience in this population more deeply.

EFL Teachers’ Emotions Toward Online-Merge-Offline Teaching Mode in University

The Online-Merge-Offline (OMO) teaching mode has emerged as a prominent new approach in language education reform with the expansion of online teaching in China. Due to the emotional complexity involved in educational reforms, this study explores the emotions expressed by Chinese EFL teachers in OMO classes, investigates the situational causes, and examines emotion regulation strategies in English Language Teaching. A questionnaire was distributed to 48 Chinese EFL teachers teaching General English (GE) using OMO mode across three normal universities, followed by semi-structured interviews for deeper insights. After collecting and analyzing data from questionnaires and interviews, the findings revealed a spectrum of emotions were experienced by EFL teachers, with positive emotions prevailing, particularly in GE classes. Love, surprise, and joy were prominent across different settings. Situational triggers encompassed classroom dynamics, institutional factors and social influences; reflecting teachers’ beliefs and identities, students’ learning engagement, behavior and academic achievements, colleagues and administrators’ work support and emotional support, policy makers’ reform mandate, and the Confucian heritage cultures. To regulate positive and negative emotions, Chinese EFL teachers primarily employed appraisal, followed by situation modification and selection. This study underscores the importance of emotional awareness for both students’ learning achievement and teachers’ professional development in ELT. It encourages Chinese EFL teachers to recognize the significance of their emotions in teaching effectiveness and offers insights for educators and administrators into supporting teachers’ emotional well-being and professional growth.

Interoception, emotion regulation strategies and skin-picking behaviors – Results of an intensive longitudinal study

Compulsive skin-picking is associated with emotion regulation difficulties, whose origins remain unclear. Interoception, plays an important role in effective emotion regulation. This study examined the relationship between interoception, emotion regulation strategies, and skin-picking in 136 individuals (85% women, aged 18–41), including 71 engaging in skin-picking and 65 psychologically healthy controls. We were interested in between-group differences in maladaptive and adaptive emotion regulation and aspects of interoception as well as associations of the latter with skin-picking symptoms and use of emotion regulation strategies. At baseline, we assessed habitual emotion regulation strategies (rumination, suppression, distraction, engagement, arousal control, reappraisal) and Interoceptive Sensibility (e.g., emotional awareness, body listening, self-regulation, noticing) through self-report questionnaires. Moreover, Interoceptive Accuracy (IAc) was measured via a Heartbeat Counting Task. Additionally, Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) over seven days was used to register use of emotion regulation strategies and the occurrence and severity of skin-picking episodes during that period. At baseline, the skin-picking group exhibited lower IAc, emotional awareness, and higher habitual use of rumination than control group. Lower IAc was associated with higher odds of reporting skin-picking episodes assessed during EMA. Body listening correlated with a reduced sense of control over skin-picking during EMA. In total sample, self-regulation was related to lower odds of using rumination during EMA and noticing with less use of cognitive reappraisal. The study highlights the complex relationship between interoception, emotion regulation, and skin-picking, offering new insights into the mechanisms underlying skin picking disorder.

Improving students' processing of history‐related 360° videos through collaboration and emotion regulation

AbstractBackgroundWith the increasing availability of immersive technologies such as 360° videos for educational purposes, research needs to shift from media comparison studies to value‐added studies in order to identify conditions for effective learning with such technologies. For the educational use of history‐related virtual reality media, which are characterized by immersion and emotionalization, instructional approaches that promote cognitive and critical rather than emotional processing of the content are required.ObjectivesDrawing on research on self‐regulated learning, emotion regulation, and collaborative learning, the present value‐added study examines whether (1) strategy training in cognitive and emotion regulation strategies and (2) collaboration can enhance students' cognitive processing of history‐related 360° videos.MethodsIn a quasi‐experimental study with school students (N = 157), we compared the effects of training addressing cognitive and emotion regulation strategies with training focusing on cognitive strategies alone. Before and during each of the two types of training, students were asked to either collaboratively or individually analyse a history‐related 360° video.Results and ConclusionsTraining in cognitive strategies alone promotes cognitive processing of 360° videos, while combined training leads to more emotional processing. Collaboration helps students to analyse a history‐related 360° video in a cognitive and reflective way before training and to acquire the cognitive strategies during the training. After training, however, students who had previously collaborated processed the video more emotionally than students who had previously worked alone. This study highlights the importance of tailored instructional approaches to maximize the educational potential of immersive technologies in history education.

Strategies and goals in Emotion Regulation models: a systematic review.

Studies examining the role of Emotion Regulation (ER) do not consistently explain the underlying model or theory they are employing, resulting in a conflation of different strategies and goals within the ER scientific literature. This study aims to conduct a systematic review and conceptual analysis of the primary strategies and goals advocated in the ER models, theories, and frameworks. Furthermore, we explored the distinctions between the prevailing contemporary ER models and classical conceptions of emotional dynamics, such as those proposed by Aristotle, Descartes, and Darwin. An electronic search was conducted in the Web of Science, Medline, and Scopus databases in November 2023. The key search terms used were grouped into two different topics: Emotion Regulation and Models/Theories/Frameworks. Articles were included if they reported one or more ER model in healthy individuals or emotionally disordered individuals and if they were published in a peer-reviewed journal in English in the last 5 years (from 2019 to 2023). A total of two reviewers independently assessed the titles, abstracts, and full texts. Models identified were summarized and classified based on the different ER strategies and goals. Of the 1,012 titles for initial consideration, 139 articles met the full eligibility criteria and were included for data extraction and synthesis. The review identified 10 ER models, and the most commonly used were the Process Model of Emotion Regulation and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation. There was a great deal of homogeneity among the proposed ER strategies and goals: the cognitive dimension is the core of ER strategy, and the ER goals are primarily hedonic or instrumental in nature. Both Descartes and Darwin views were present in the ER models; however, some of the most significant contributions in Aristotelian proposal seem to be forgotten, such as the integration of the physical, operational, and growth dimensions (eudaimonic goals). This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines and was preregistered at Prospero platform (CRD42023491948).