Emotion Concepts Research Articles

Happiness, Achievement or Money: Testing a Multidimensional Model of Success among Bulgarian Social Media Users

Abstract Some of the biggest challenges in one’s life include self-actualization and achieving success. Feeling successful in turbulent times has become more and more challenging. The goal of this paper is to introduce a multidimensional model of success and test it among a non-representative sample (N = 1063) of digital users in Bulgaria. According to the model, success beliefs are culturally specific and comprise four dimensions: happiness, achievement, material well-being, and social capital. The research method includes non-representative snowball sampling among Bulgarian social media users on Facebook and LinkedIn. A descriptive statistical analysis was used for the validation of data. The results show that participants consider themselves to be moderately successful. Respondents positively associate success with most factors, except for public influence (social capital) and material property (well-being). Digital users associate success the most with happiness and the least with social capital. They perceive success as an intangible and emotional concept, rather than a material one. The participants who feel moderately or completely unsuccessful associate success primarily with material possessions (well-being) and connections (social capital). It is suggested to continue researching this topic in a representative study among Bulgarian and even foreign citizens. The multidimensional model of success is an applicable research tool for future research in business and organizational management.

Impact of the War in Ukraine on the Ability of Children to Recognize Basic Emotions.

This study assessed emotion recognition skills in school-age children in wartime conditions in Ukraine. An online survey based on the concept of basic emotions was administrated to a sample of 419 schoolchildren from Ukraine and a control group of 310 schoolchildren from the Czech Republic, aged 8 to 12. There is no difference in judging the intensity of anger and fear by Ukrainian children, compared with the control group. There is no evidence that the emotions of anger, fear, and sadness were better recognized in the Ukrainian group. Children from Ukraine were better at recognizing positive emotions than Czech children. Increased risks of threats and wartime experience do not impair the accuracy of identification of emotions like fear or the assessment of intensity of basic emotions by children who experience war in Ukraine. Still, it is important to continue studying the long-term consequences of military conflicts in order to deepen the understanding of their impact on human mental functioning.

Lithuanian Conceptual Colour–Emotion Associations in the Global Context of 37 Nations

Red with anger or green with envy – such metaphors link colours and emotions. While such colour metaphors vary across languages, conceptual associations between colours and emotions have many cross-cultural similarities. Here, we took published data from 8615 participants (2172 men) coming from 37 nations (i.e., Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, China, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, India, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Philippines, Poland, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States) and analysed Lithuanian (n = 217) associations between colour terms and emotion concepts. Lithuanians had many associations, the most frequent being red–love, yellow–amusement, yellow–joy, and black–sadness (all endorsed by > 60% of participants). While Lithuanians associated more emotions with colours than the other participants, the Lithuanian pattern of these associations was highly similar to the global pattern (r = .92). When compared to each other nation individually, colour–emotion association pattern similarities ranged between .65 and .89. Lithuanian patterns were the most similar to the Russian and the least similar to the Egyptian ones. Crucially, such similarities could be predicted by linguistic but not geographic distances. Nations speaking languages linguistically closer to Lithuanian also displayed more similar colour–emotion association patterns. These results support universality of colour–emotion associations and point to small but meaningful cultural differences (e.g., red represented love more strongly than anger for Lithuanians but not globally). Future studies should look whether colours can modulate emotions, or whether such associations are purely abstract.

The Impact of Positivity in Multi Business Model Innovation in a World of VUCA – How Can Positive Emotions Stimulate the MBMI Process?

The importance of right speed, effectiveness, efficiency and learning in Multi Business Model Innovation (MBMI) is vital to meet today’s Volatile, Uncertainty, Complex and Ambiguous (VUCA) challenges to survive as a Business in Business Model EcosystemS (BMES). Coronavirus pandemic, war in Ukraine, volatile global material and resource prices and deliveries, cyberattacks make big external VUCA events to Businesses. VUCA can also come from the inside of the Business as management style change, interventions or a burn down of the Business. How can Businesses under these VUCA conditions still do high quality MBMI? How can MBMI participants and teams in these processes increase their MBMI output? This paper investigates the impact of positive emotions, relatedness and creativity on the outcome of three different MBMI processes in three different Business Model Ecosystems influenced by VUCA. Positivity, relatedness and creativity are hypothesized as components to strengthen the individuals’ search for meaning in VUCA and for their motivation to act in MBMI processes influenced by VUCA. The study is conducted as a mix method research project in the view of MBMI and psychological theory – particularly the concept of positive emotions and relatedness as mental states for learning and knowledge creation. Interviews and observations show that individuals in networks and teams with a mood of positivity strengthen MBMI and the MBMI learning and creation process. Thus, our intention for further research is twofold: Training in positivity in teams can stimulate the courage to make disruptive solutions sufficient for VUCA. Secondly, in searching for the MBMI mindset psychological traits will be studied by the Big Five profile test. This opens for recruitment of participants to optimizing MBMI teams. Main contributions are: • Positive emotions and relatedness strengthen the urge to learn and to create in VUCA – searching for meaning and motivation to act is related to this concept. • Learning and creative processes increase, since the basis of positivity and relatedness in individuals, teams and networks are strengthened. • Innovative outcome seems of a higher quality when based on positive emotions. Research in positive emotions in Business Model Innovation is rare. • Positive emotion is the core concept and by training of positivity, it may strengthen the MBMI processes and the VUCA competences. • The outcomes and solution of the MBMI processes in the case study show mainly incremental and radical MBMI – only one is disruptive.

EMOTIONS THROUGH THE PRISM OF GERMAN PAREMIES

The article explores the concept of human emotions as a dynamic, systemic, socio-psychological phenomenon with distinct linguistic-cultural specificity and national characteristics. The choice of this research topic is driven by a perceived spiritual crisis affecting humanity in general, and the German ethnic group in particular, as well as by an anthropocentric approach to contemporary linguistic issues. The German language is seen as peripheral in many research contexts. The hypothesis underpinning this study suggests that a spiritual crisis is linked to a lack of inner harmony, arising from cognitive dissonance. From a theoretical perspective, cognitive dissonance should encourage individuals to engage in cognitive processes, enhancing their understanding of the world and their place within it. This process includes critical examination of received information and validation of its truth. Discomfort caused by mental dissonance can be resolved by changing behaviors or beliefs, controlling emotions, revising values or conflicting ideas, or increasing emotogenic knowledge.The article emphasizes that the definition of emotion remains open-ended, with its interpretation often tied to specific philosophical teachings, biological, somatic, psychological, cognitive, eclectic, or linguistic theories. The primary objective of the study is to establish a paradigm of the most typical emotions experienced by the German people over many centuries, as evidenced by paremias (proverbial expressions). Emotions that are codified in texts more than three times are identified as typical. Despite significant contributions from philosophers, psychologists, ethnographers, historians, sociologists, linguists, and philologists to the study of emotions, many aspects remain unresolved, particularly with respect to emotions in texts and paremias. Through this research, the concepts of "emotion," "emotion in text," and "emotion in paremia" are clarified. The study also provides a brief overview of the German way of life during the 8th to 18th centuries, offering examples of explicit and implicit emotions, as well as their variants. Additionally, emotional patterns and their variations are examined, distinguishing positive, neutral, negative, and undefined emotions based on semantic features. Ultimately, the article confirms the idea that there is a relationship between emotions and the cultural and spiritual experiences of an ethnic group.

META-EMOTIONS: CONCEPT, STRUCTURE AND APPROACHES TO STUDY

The article examines the concept of meta-emotions or second-order emotions. The latter are understood as the emotions that the subject experiences regarding his own emotions, as well as the emotions of another person. An analysis of the development of this construct in philosophical and psychological research is presented. In this context, the relevance of introducing the concept of meta-emotions into the categorical apparatus of psychology and the empirical study of meta-emotional processes is discussed. In psychological studies of meta-emotions, two approaches have been identified that have developed to date. First, meta-emotions are considered as a component of emotional education strategies that parents implement in relation to their children. Secondly, meta-emotions are studied as part of the development of the problem of emotional intelligence, in particular based on the phenomena of meta-mood. The article also discusses the question of the structure of meta-emotions. Options are analyzed that provide a general formal description of the structure of meta-emotional activity (the object of meta-emotions, goals in the context of which meta-emotional states arise, feedback between meta-emotions and emotional goals). At the same time, the model of J. Gottman et al. is presented, in which meta-emotions act as an essential component of parents’ approaches to the emotional regulation of the child’s behavior, which are different in their productivity. Conclusions are drawn regarding the possibility of using the model of parental meta-emotions in relation to situations of educational interaction between a teacher and a student. Purpose. The article is devoted to the topic of meta-emotions, which is relevant in the current state of development of psychology and pedagogy. The subject of analysis is meta-emotions in parent-child relationships. The author aims to explore the concept, structure and modern approaches to the study of meta-emotions, as well as to analyze the model of the influence of parental meta-emotions on the child’s results in the development of emotional self-regulation skills by J. Gottman and Katz and determine the possibilities of its use in relation to the interaction between teacher and student. Methodology. The basis of the study is observation, the method of generalization of independent characteristics and twin methods. Results. The results of the work are that the author emphasizes the presence of a close relationship between the child’s ability for emotional self-regulation based on the understanding of meta-emotions by the subjects of education represented by parents or teachers. Practical implications. The results of the study can be applied in the field of psychological and pedagogical interaction between subjects of education and students based on the analysis of meta-emotions and emotional self-regulation.

Philosophical Lessons for Emotion Recognition Technology

Emotion recognition technology uses artificial intelligence to make inferences about a person’s emotions, on the basis of their facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, or other types of input. Underlying such technology are a variety of assumptions about the manifestation, nature, and value of emotions. To assure the quality and desirability of emotion recognition technology, it is important to critically assess the assumptions embedded in the technology. Within philosophy, there is a long tradition of epistemological, ontological, phenomenological, and ethical reflection on the manifestation, nature, and value of emotions. This article draws from this tradition of philosophy of emotions, in order to challenge the assumptions underlying current emotion recognition technology and to promote a more critical engagement with the concept of emotions in the tech-industry.

Sound symbolic associations in Spanish emotional words: affective dimensions and discrete emotions

ABSTRACT Sound symbolism refers to non-arbitrary associations between word forms and meaning, such as those observed for some properties of sounds and size or shape. Recent evidence suggests that these connections extend to emotional concepts. Here we investigated two types of non-arbitrary relationships. Study 1 examined whether iconicity scores (i.e. resemblance-based mapping between aspects of a word’s form and its meaning) for words can be predicted from ratings in the affective dimensions of valence and arousal and/or the discrete emotions of happiness, anger, fear, disgust and sadness. Words denoting negative concepts were more likely to have more iconic word forms. Study 2 explored whether statistical regularities in single phonemes (i.e. systematicity) predicted ratings in affective dimensions and/or discrete emotions. Voiceless (/p/, /t/) and voiced plosives (/b/, /d/, /g/) were related to high arousing words, whereas high arousing negative words tended to include fricatives (/s/, /z/). Hissing consonants were also more likely to occur in words denoting all negative discrete emotions. Additionally, words conveying certain discrete emotions included specific phonemes. Overall, our data suggest that emotional features might explain variations in iconicity and provide new insight about phonemic patterns showing sound symbolic associations with the affective properties of words.

Emotion in language: Emotion word type and valence interactively predicted Chinese emotional word processing in emotion categorization task

AbstractThe present study examined the predicted effects of emotion word type and valence on emotional word recognition and explored their influence on emotion effects through an emotion categorization task. The results showed the influence of emotion word type and valence on emotional words recognition. Emotion‐label words exhibited faster response and higher accuracy rates (ACC) than emotion‐laden words, and positive words evoked faster response and lower ACC than negative words. Positive emotion‐label words and negative emotion‐laden words evoked higher ACC than negative emotion‐label words and positive emotion‐laden words. Besides, the findings revealed the modulation of emotion word type and valence on the emotion effects. Emotion‐label words and positive words displayed larger emotion effects than emotion‐laden words and negative words in reaction time, and only emotion‐laden words and positive emotion‐label words showed emotion effects in ACC. These findings endorsed the mediated emotion concept account, density hypothesis, and automatic vigilance hypothesis. Based on the findings, we proposed a valence cognition account to explain the interactive results.

Emotional Experiences and Their Connection With Coping Strategies During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Gender Differences

The study was conducted in Ukraine during the onset of COVID-19 pandemic. The sample contained 232 individuals. The aim was to study emotional experiences and their connection with coping strategies in the context of gender differences. The research was based on the concept of differential emotions, and on the understanding of the accumulation strategies as a dynamic process, which is determined by personal prepositions and situational factors. Measures used in the study were the Differential Emotions Scale and the Ways of Coping Questionnaire. The growth of negative experiences and stress at the beginning of the pandemic among men and women was confirmed. We described the differences regarding emotions and coping strategies. Women use emotion-focused strategies of social support, strategies of positive reappraisal of the situation, and avoidance, the acceptance of responsibility among women is associated with negative emotions. We found that women more frequently use two or more coping strategies compared to men. A different emotional basis of coping strategies, expressed at high levels of tension among men and women, was revealed. The defined features of coping behavior among men and women may help to determine the main goals for the development of preventive and psychotherapeutic interventions.

Perancangan Antarmuka Aplikasi Mobile Perguruan Tinggi Menggunakan Kansei Engineering (Studi Kasus: STIS Nahdatul Ulama Cianjur)

Mobile Apps program-based has given a major influence towards the education sector, specifically in general information about college, especially in stakeholder needs. On the other hand, it also assists in reading the latest events and news, the notification of class schedules, also the information of grades and attendances. The focus of this research is to analyze user preferences including increasing user satisfaction, user retention and design preferences for the interface of Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Syariah Nahdatul Ulama College mobile app using the Kansei Engineering Type 1 method. The study used Kansei engineering method was conducted to analyze various emotional factors relating to the interface of users by comparing five specimens of college’s mobile apps. A total of twenty kansei words were found from thirty Kansei words based on the selection of UI/UX experts. The data obtained is then analyzed using multivariate statistical methods, such as Cronbach's Alpha (CA), Coefficient Correlation Analysis (CCA), and Factor Analysis (FA). The result is four Kansei words that are influential and have the greatest value, namely Dynamic, Impressive, Professional, and Formal. One selected Kansei word produces recommendations for the appearance of the mobile application interface Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Syariah Nahdatul Ulama The analysis was conducted on all participants with a focus on the "Formal" emotion concept.

That means something to me: How linguistic and emotional experience affect the acquisition, representation, and processing of novel abstract concepts.

We used a novel linguistic training paradigm to investigate the experience-dependent acquisition, representation, and processing of novel emotional and neutral abstract concepts. Participants engaged in mental imagery (n = 32) or lexico-semantic rephrasing (n = 34) of linguistic material during five training sessions and successfully learned the novel abstract concepts. Feature production after training showed that specifically emotion features enriched the emotional concepts' representations. Unexpectedly, for participants engaging in vivid mental imagery during training a higher semantic richness of the acquired emotional concepts slowed down lexical decisions. Rephrasing, in turn, promoted a better learning and processing performance than imagery, probably due to stronger established lexical associations. Our results confirm the importance of emotional and linguistic experience and additional deep lexico-semantic processing for the acquisition, representation, and processing of abstract concepts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

What makes a word a good representative of the category of "emotion"? The role of feelings and interoception.

The words we use to describe emotions vary in terms of prototypicality; that is, some of these words may be more representative of the semantic category of emotion than others (e.g., anger refers more clearly to an emotion than boredom). Based on a multicomponential conception of emotions, the aim of the present study was to examine the contribution of several variables to emotion prototypicality. Some of those variables are related to the distinct components of emotions: evaluation, action, body expression, internal body sensations (interoception), and feelings. Other variables are related to the concreteness/abstractness distinction: sensory experience, social interaction, thought, and morality. We collected ratings for these variables for a large set of words (1,286) which varied in emotion prototypicality. A regression analysis revealed that the variables that most contributed to emotion prototypicality were feelings and interoception. Furthermore, a factor analysis identified two underlying factors: socioemotional polarity and emotional experience. The scores of each word in both factors were used to create a two-dimensional space and a density plot which provides relevant information about the organization of emotion concepts in memory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Eco-emotions as the planetary boundaries: framing human emotional and planetary health in the global environmental crisis

BackgroundAffective processes play an important role in physical and mental health and in adaptation responses to the global environmental crisis. Eco-emotions—emotions that are substantially associated with the environment and anthropogenic changes happening within it—are complex and culturally varied. Despite the disproportionate impact of the global environmental crisis on low-income and middle-income countries, most psychological research to date has been conducted in high-income countries and has focused on climate change and negative climate emotions (eg, climate anxiety). The absence of diverse, globally representative evidence about emotions associated with the global environmental crisis beyond climate change hinders evidence-based action on psychological adaptation and the development of contextually and culturally appropriate coping strategies toward the wider range of negative anthropogenic effects. To account for this wider range of anthropogenic effects, we previously introduced an eco-emotions framework built on the planetary boundaries concept. We aimed to apply this framework to the current research on eco-emotional responses to identify remaining gaps that hinder evidence-based action. MethodsWe conducted a literature review of peer-reviewed studies assessing core affect (ie, emotional valence and arousal) and emotions with emphasis on study populations from low-income and middle-income countries and on the eight non-climate change planetary boundaries (biodiversity loss, freshwater use, ocean acidification, chemical pollution, air pollution, land system change, ozone depletion, and nitrogen and phosphorus perturbation). We searched Web of Science from database inception to Oct 31, 2023, for observational empirical studies of adults, using planetary boundary-specific (eg, freshwater use) or wider, newer, or overarching emotional concept (eg, solastalgia, environmental change) search terms. FindingsIn contrast to previous climate emotions work, our preliminary results of 135 peer reviewed studies identified a significant body of literature beyond climate change concerning emotional responses to the planetary boundaries of biodiversity loss, freshwater scarcity, and chemical pollution as well as emerging evidence of emotional responses to the other five planetary boundaries. InterpretationWe found that the spectrum of eco-emotional responses ranged from being specific to a single planetary boundary to encompassing all planetary boundaries. Our findings underscore the importance of and urgent need for more holistic and diverse psychological intervention strategies targeting the wider range of anthropogenic effects during the rapidly intensifying global environmental crisis. FundingEmmett Interdisciplinary Program in Environment and Resources; McGee and Levorsen Research Grant Program; and Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society at Stanford University.

'여우비’ 유래담의 전승양상과 의미변화 고찰: ‘여우가 시집간다’, ‘호랑이 장가간다’와의 연계성을 중심으로

‘Foxrain’ is “rain that comes for a while and stops, on a day when there is sunshine” and is an expression similar to idioms such as ‘fox is getting married’ and ‘tiger is getting married’. Until now, the public had little interest in ‘foxrain’. However, in recent years, on days when it rains, ‘foxrain’ has become more common due to global climate change. The public has become more interested and raised questions about its origins. Why does the word ‘foxrain’, which is a combination of “animal name” and ‘rain’, explain the paradoxical situation where it rains even though the day is sunny? Words for animals form the oldest vocabulary of all the world's languages and reflect the ideas and values o​​f unique ethnic groups and their cultures. Also, the combination of ‘animal name’ and ‘verb + adjective’, which are special components of idiomatic phrases, can be debated from a narrative perspective.
 This research looked for traces of the origin story through a questionnaire survey and investigated the public's perception of ‘foxrain’. As a result, we were able to discover new idioms and the preference for idioms by age group. From the past until now, foxes have shown potential as a prototype for stories. In the past, it was simply a expression to describe the weather, but now it has been expanded to include an emotional concept through the linking of contexts. Especially new new media is currently reproducing its story of origin and regaining its status as a cultural prototype. Tracking such idiom changes would also be a meaningful task in the oral literary field.
 This study explores the meaning of idiomatic expressions through the story of the origin of ‘foxrain’, used in literature and media in response to the demands of the times. It considers the relationships between similar idiomatic expressions and their origins. We will also look at the meaning changes that accompany changes in media.

A false emotion opinion target extraction model with two stage BERT and background information fusion

As social media has gradually become an indispensable part of people’s life, more and more users begin to express their opinions on social media. These opinions contain rich emotional information, as well as many abnormal false emotion. And the opinion target rich in false emotion will have great potential value in the field of movie box office prediction, public opinion guidance and so on. Therefore, we propose a false emotion opinion target extraction task and two stage BERT+CRF model based on the concept of false emotion. Firstly, two stage BERT network includes C-BERT and W-BERT. We use C-BERT to learn the users comment feature, and W-BERT to learn the background content features of microblog. Then, we design five feature interaction fusion methods to fuse the features learned by C-BERT and W-BERT. At last, we transform the false emotion opinion target extraction task into a sequence labeling task, and use the CRF method to learn the label dependency of the context and output the optimal sequence among all candidate sequences. Due to the lack of false emotion opinion target datasets, we collate a false emotion opinion target dataset Weibo23. Comparing with the advanced models used in related research, including some sequence labeling models and named entity recognition models, two stage BERT+CRF model achieves an F1 score of 0.8834, which is about 10%–20% higher.

The philosophy of emotions: Implementing character education through poetry

This paper investigates the concept of emotion and its relevance to education via character education through the medium of poetry. The objective is to demonstrate the potential implementation of character education through poetry, and to show the intrinsic link between poetry and virtue, knowledge and reasoning. It is argued that poetry serves as a bridge between emotion and character education. The philosophy of emotions is explored through the works of Aristotle, Karin Bohlin and David Carr. Character education is understood in terms of a Neo-Aristotelian approach, drawing on Kristján Kristjánsson, Bohlin and Carr. My position is that, through exercising the craft of poetry, children and young students are provided with tools for exploring emotions, and for discerning and deliberating about virtues and moral contextual nuances in the broader context of human experience.

A Brain-Inspired Way of Reducing the Network Complexity via Concept-Regularized Coding for Emotion Recognition

The human brain can effortlessly and reliably perceive emotions, whereas existing facial emotion recognition (FER) methods suffer from drawbacks such as complex model structures, high storage requirements, and poor interpretability. Inspired by the role of emotion concepts in visual perception coding within the human brain, we propose a dual-pathway framework emulating the neural computation of emotion recognition. Specifically, these two pathways are designed to model the representation of emotion concepts in the brain and the visual perception process, respectively. For the former, we adopt a disentangled approach to extract emotion concepts from complex facial geometric attributes; for the latter, we employ an emotional confidence evaluation strategy to determine which concept is optimal for regularizing the perceptual coding. The proposed concept-regularized coding strategy endows the framework with flexibility and interpretability as well as good performances on several benchmarking FER datasets.

Emotions in conceptual spaces

ABSTRACT The overreliance on verbal models and theories in psychology has been criticized for hindering the development of reliable research programs (Harris, 1976; Yarkoni, 2020). We demonstrate how the conceptual space framework can be used to formalize verbal theories and improve their precision and testability. In the framework, scientific concepts are represented by means of geometric objects. As a case study, we present a formalization of an existing three-dimensional theory of emotion which was developed with a spatial metaphor in mind. Wundt posits that the range of human emotion can be represented along three axes of basic emotions (pleasure/displeasure, excitement/inhibition, tension/relaxation), just as color vision can be represented using three basic colors. We use dimensions to represent basic emotions, points to represent emotional states, and regions to represent broader emotional concepts. We then compare our formalization to an existing structuralist formalization of Wundt’s theory. Further, we discuss the empirical predictions that our formalization generates, such as comparisons of similarity and intensity. We conclude by demonstrating how the tools developed in the conceptual space framework can be used to formulate a theory of emotion based on empirical observation.

Emotionless Animals? Constructionist Theories of Emotion Beyond the Human Case

Abstract Could emotions be a uniquely human phenomenon? One prominent theory in emotion science, Lisa Feldman Barrett’s Theory of Constructed Emotion (tce), suggests they might be. The source of the sceptical challenge is that tce links emotions to abstract concepts tracking socio-normative expectations, and other animals are unlikely to have such concepts. Barrett’s own response to the sceptical challenge is to relativize emotion to the perspective of an interpreter, but this is unpromising. A more promising response may be to amend the theory, dropping the commitment to the abstract nature of emotion concepts and allowing that, like olfactory concepts, they have disjunctive sensory groundings. Even if other animals were emotionless, this would not imply they lack morally significant interests. Unconceptualized valenced experiences are a sufficient basis for morally significant interests, and such experiences may occur even in the absence of discrete, constructed emotions.