Emissions In Transport Sector Research Articles

Decomposition of China’s Pollutant Emissions of Transport Sector Based on LMDI Method

The transport sector, as one of the principal source of air pollution, has attracted a growing attention in academia in recent years. By employing the LMDI method, this paper focuses on the driving factors of pollution in transport sector based on the pollutant emission data of motor vehicles from 2010-2018. The results show that the production effect is the main driver for the changes of NOx and PM emissions in the transport sector, while for HC, pollution intensity effect is the largest contributor. The pollution intensity effect reduced NOx and PM emission by 307% and 381%, respectively, which plays the dominant role in reducing their emissions. Compared to other effects, the structure effect and the vehicle effect make minor contributions to the changes of pollutant emissions.

Decarbonization of Maritime Transport: Analysis of External Costs

For Europe, transport for centuries been a catalyst of economic development. It facilitates commercial exchange among European Union (EU) Member States and much of the rest of the world. Maritime transport forms the main axis of international exchange, carrying approximately 90 % of total traded tonnage. In doing so, it pays the price of being responsible for 2.5 % of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions. The efforts to reduce the negative environmental impact of transport activity are centered on better modal integration of the common transport system, sustainability, green technologies in the transport sector, resource efficiency, and carbon emissions reduction. The International Maritime Organization has tasked its members to achieve a 70 % reduction in CO2 emissions by 2050 or, if possible, to eliminate them altogether. From a business end, it is possible to apply a variety of technologies to ensure zero-emissions or, at the least, a dramatic reduction of emissions in shipping. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the strategic approach to the decarbonization process based on EU strategic documents and low-emission and zero-emission technologies, used and developed, in maritime transport. An estimation of external costs incurred by maritime transport will allow for the assessment of benefits resulting from the application of technologies and alternative fuels proposed in the solutions. On the basis of the obtained results from external cost valuation, it will be possible to estimate the potential for decarbonization in maritime transport.

Evaluation of Energy Consumption and CO2 Emission Reduction Policies for Urban Transport with System Dynamics Approach

The current trend of the global increase in energy consumption has presented societies with several major crises including environmental pollution and the acceleration of diminishing energy supplies. Energy storage and pollutant reduction in the city play a crucial role in the process of conserving the existing energy. In addition, the transportation sector should be emphasized due to its importance. Further, it can bring significant amounts of annual economic savings to the people and governments by reducing the energy consumption and adverse environmental effects, as well as reducing the travel time and unwanted delays. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the most important parameters of environmental pollutant emissions in the urban transport sector and develop the system dynamics model of Tehran urban transport. To this aim, six scenarios including Business As Usual, Priority to the Development of Public Transport, Technical Progress, Administrative Rules and Regulations Management (ARM), Travel Demand Management (TDM), and Comprehensive Policy (CP) were quantitatively analyzed. Based on the results, both TDM and ARM scenarios were effective in the short term. Although CO2 emissions in the TDM scenario were estimated at about 155,072 million kilograms in 2015, which was better than all individual policies, the reduction of the ARM scenario was better after 2019 and the CO2 emissions of the ARM scenario were estimated to be 153,940 million kilograms in 2025. However, the CP scenario had generally the best performance compared with all the individual policies. Finally, by implementing the scenarios simultaneously, we observed that each plays a role in improving the situation while reducing energy consumption and CO2 emissions significantly. In particular, CO2 emissions in the CP scenario were estimated to be 125,934 million kilograms by 2025.

Autoignition study of LPG blends with diesel and HVO in a constant-volume combustion chamber

There is an increasing interest in reducing CO2 as far as it is the main responsible of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Since the contribution of heavy-duty (HD) vehicles to GHG emissions of the road transport sector reaches 24% in the European Union, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is suggested as a promising alternative fuel to be introduced in HD vehicles. The main drawback when using LPG in diesel engines is its poor autoignition behavior. To overcome this difficulty is possible to mix LPG with Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) or diesel fuel, which acts as an ignition improver. This work has focused on LPG-HVO blends up to 75 %m/m LPG content, with lower LPG content admixtures included. Another measure to promote autoignition is using advanced injection strategies, particularly at low thermal conditions in the combustion chamber. This study concluded that 25LPG-75HVO blend (without any injection strategy modification) and 50LPG-50HVO blend (with advanced injection strategy) show better autoignition behavior than diesel fuel at low thermal conditions. At usual combustion conditions, LPG-HVO blends up to 75 %m/m LPG content can be supplied using an advanced injection strategy, and achieving similar autoignition behavior than diesel. LPG and HVO contents in the blend can be balanced depending on the thermal conditions. Therefore, a novel injection system with an in-line mixing valve capable of managing the instantaneous LPG/HVO ratio for compression ignition engines, is suggested. Testing these blends with advanced injection strategies using the in-line mixing system in a real HD engine would confirm these results.

Source apportionment of volatile organic compounds in the northwest Indo-Gangetic Plain using a positive matrix factorization model

Abstract. In this study we undertook quantitative source apportionment for 32 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) measured at a suburban site in the densely populated northwest Indo-Gangetic Plain using the US EPA PMF 5.0 model. Six sources were resolved by the PMF model. In descending order of their contribution to the total VOC burden these are “biofuel use and waste disposal” (23.2 %), “wheat-residue burning”(22.4 %), “cars” (16.2 %), “mixed daytime sources”(15.7 %) “industrial emissions and solvent use”(11.8 %), and “two-wheelers” (8.6 %). Wheat-residue burning is the largest contributor to the total ozone formation potential (32.4 %). For the emerging contaminant isocyanic acid, photochemical formation from precursors (37 %) and wheat-residue burning (25 %) were the largest contributors to human exposure. Wheat-residue burning was also the single largest source of the photochemical precursors of isocyanic acid, namely, formamide, acetamide and propanamide, indicating that this source must be most urgently targeted to reduce human concentration exposure to isocyanic acid in the month of May. Our results highlight that for accurate air quality forecasting and modeling it is essential that emissions are attributed only to the months in which the activity actually occurs. This is important for emissions from crop residue burning, which occur in May and from mid-October to the end of November. The SOA formation potential is dominated by cars (36.9 %) and two-wheelers (21.1 %), which also jointly account for 47% of the human class I carcinogen benzene in the PMF model. This stands in stark contrast to various emission inventories which estimate only a minor contribution of the transport sector to the benzene exposure (∼10 %) and consider residential biofuel use, agricultural residue burning and industry to be more important benzene sources. Overall it appears that none of the emission inventories represent the regional emissions in an ideal manner. Our PMF solution suggests that transport sector emissions may be underestimated by GAINSv5.0 and EDGARv4.3.2 and overestimated by REASv2.1, while the combined effect of residential biofuel use and waste disposal emissions as well as the VOC burden associated with solvent use and industrial sources may be overestimated by all emission inventories. The agricultural waste burning emissions of some of the detected compound groups (ketones, aldehydes and acids) appear to be missing in the EDGARv4.3.2 inventory.

Trends in road transportation fuel consumption and carbon emissions: a scenario analysis using system dynamic modelling

ABSTRACTThis paper analyses the fuel consumption and emissions in road transportation sector by using system dynamic modelling (SDM). The road transportation in the Middle East countries depends on private mode and hence emission and fuel consumption are higher. The objective of this study was to identify the existing transport demand and supply, on fuel and emissions by developing a system dynamic model, to predict fuel consumption requirements and emissions. A conditional analysis, by considering three common scenarios to enhance the mass mobility by confining the private transport mode revealed a consumption reduction of 70% of energy and 50% of emission levels. Therefore, the transport modal split of 70:30 can fetch substantially high outcome through reduction in fuel and energy consumption.

Modeling Future Energy Demand and CO2 Emissions of Passenger Cars in Indonesia at the Provincial Level

The high energy demand and CO2 emissions in the road transport sector in Indonesia are mainly caused by the use of passenger cars. This situation is predicted to continue due to the increase in car ownership. Scenarios are arranged to examine the potential reductions in energy demand and CO2 emissions in comparison with the business as usual (BAU) condition between 2016 and 2050 by controlling car intensity (fuel economy) and activity (vehicle-km). The intensity is controlled through the introduction of new car technologies, while the activity is controlled through the enactment of fuel taxes. This study aims to analyze the energy demand and CO2 emissions of passenger cars in Indonesia not only for a period in the past (2010–2015) but also based on projections through to 2050, by employing a provincially disaggregated bottom-up model. The provincially disaggregated model shows more accurate estimations for passenger car energy demands. The results suggest that energy demand and CO2 emissions in 2050 will be 50 million liter gasoline equivalent (LGE) and 110 million tons of CO2, respectively. The five provinces with the highest CO2 emissions in 2050 are projected to be West Java, Banten, East Java, Central Java, and South Sulawesi. The projected analysis for 2050 shows that new car technology and fuel tax scenarios can reduce energy demand from the BAU condition by 7.72% and 3.18% and CO2 emissions by 15.96% and 3.18%, respectively.

Peaking CO2 emissions for China's urban passenger transport sector

Due to economic development and urbanization, the number of car ownership continues to increase, making the urban passenger transport sector becoming an important contributor for energy consumption and CO2 emissions in China (accounting for around 20% of the total carbon emissions of the transport sector in 2016). Hence, how the urban passenger transport sector can contribute to peaking China's carbon dioxide emissions by 2030 is worthy of attention. To that end, we develop a National Energy Technology-Transport (NET-Transport) model to assess the impacts of shifting to alternative clean fuels, improving vehicle fuel efficiency, and promoting public transportation on the future energy demand and CO2 emissions for China's urban passenger transport sector. The results show that in the context of promoting the use of clean fuel vehicles and increasing vehicle fuel efficiency, CO2 emissions of China's urban passenger transport sector could reach a peak of 225 MtCO2 in 2030. If the mode share of public transport could further increase, the CO2 emissions from the urban passenger transport sector in China are possible to peak at around 2020 with the emissions ranging from 171 to 214 MtCO2.

Relationship between the development and CO2 emissions of transport sector in China

The transport sector imposes enormous challenges for energy consumption and CO2 emission reduction. Using data from 30 provinces in China, this paper adopted the Tapio decoupling index to examine the relationship between the development of the transport sector and its CO2 emissions from provincial perspective. Additionally, we employed the logarithmic mean divisia index method to explore the effect of several factors on the state of decoupling. The results showed that the under-developed provinces were more likely to present a weak decoupling state than the developed and coastal provinces. Income level was the major influential factor limiting the development of decoupling in the transport sector. The population scale had a very small negative role in the development of decoupling. Moreover, the effects of CO2 emissions efficiency, transport intensity and industry structure varied across provinces. By offering a provincial perspective on decoupling states and its driving factors, this study can provide a reference for governments in proposing carbon-reduction policies and promoting low carbon development of the transport sector.

Interactions between Climate and Local Air Pollution Policies: The Case of European Passenger Cars

Many European countries have adopted carbon dioxide–based (CO2-based) vehicle taxes to help reduce transportation sector emissions. The literature has shown that these policies reduce CO2 emissions but has not considered whether they affect emissions that harm local air quality. This paper analyzes whether CO2-based taxes have an unintended consequence of raising emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulates, which harm local air quality. Using highly detailed data on European new vehicle registrations from 2002 through 2010, I estimate the effects of fuel costs and vehicle taxes on consumer vehicle choices. The CO2-based vehicle taxes reduce CO2 emissions but increase NOx and particulates emissions. The environmental harms from the NOx and particulates emissions roughly offset the benefits of the lower CO2 emissions. Because of the estimated substitution patterns, fuel-based CO2 taxes introduce milder trade-offs than do vehicle taxes.

Emissions from the road transport sector of New Zealand: key drivers and challenges.

The transport sector is the fastest growing greenhouse gas-emitting sector in the world and it is also a major source of emissions in New Zealand. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from road transport increased by 84.3% between 1990 and 2016. This increase in GHG emissions was the highest among the different energy sub-sectors of New Zealand. Increasing energy consumption and GHG emissions are due to the gradual increase in population, car-dependent low-density development, lack of integrated public transport networks, inappropriate policy interventions and so on. These factors are making it difficult to reduce emissions from this sector. This study investigates (i) major drivers of transport sector emissions, including how drivers differ from those affecting other developed countries; (ii) a mitigation policy roadmap to achieve future emissions reduction targets; and (iii) mitigation policy initiatives by the government, and policy gaps. To identify the key drivers from a set of drivers, this study uses a vector error correction model (VECM). The Granger causality test reveals that the fuel economy of the New Zealand passenger vehicle fleet has a significant causal relationship with transport emissions. Introduction of a number of policies such as a feebate scheme and/or a high minimum fuel economy standard could effectively alter this causal relationship in the short term, along with other measures such as urban planning changes for medium-term impact. This study aims to help policy makers identify the most tractable factors driving transport emissions and alternative policy options suitable for emissions mitigation.

Determinants of carbon emissions in Pakistan's transport sector.

The transport infrastructure plays an imperative role in a country's progress. At the same time, it causes environmental degradation due to extensive use of fossil fuels. The transport system of Pakistan is largely dependent on nonrenewable energy sources (oil, coal, and gas), which are hazardous to environmental quality. This research uses an autoregressive distributive lag model (ARDL) to examine the impact of oil prices, energy intensity of road transport, economic growth, and population density on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of Pakistan's transport sector during the 1971-2014 period. The ARDL bounding test examines the cointegration and long-run relationships among the variables, and the directions of causal relationships are found through the Granger causality vector error correction model (VECM). The long-run results indicate that increases in oil prices and economic growth help to reduce the transport sector's CO2 emissions, while rising energy intensity, population concentration, and road infrastructure increase them, with population playing a dominant role. The findings of this study can help authorities in Pakistan to develop suitable energy policies for the transport sector. Among other recommendations, the study recommends investment in renewable energy projects and energy-efficient transport systems (e.g., light train, rapid transport system, and electric busses) and environmental taxes (subsidies) on the vehicles that use fossil fuels (renewable energy).

Achieving low-carbon urban passenger transport in China: Insights from the heterogeneous rebound effect

The rapid increase in energy consumption and carbon emissions in China's passenger transportation sector threatens both the environment and the nation's energy security. Energy efficiency improvements, leading to lower fuel consumption, are therefore of considerable interest to policymakers trying to achieve low-carbon travel. However, it is well established that higher miles per gallon efficiencies can, by reducing the costs of travel, lead to some level of increased personal travel: the so-called ‘rebound effect’. This paper describes an empirical study to measure the size and also the variability in this effect at the provincial level and what this variability implies for a carbon tax policy. This rebound effect is quantified using a two-stage Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) model. A backfire effect (i.e. the rebound is ≫100%) is observed in urban passenger transport, with disparities in the size of the rebound effect ranging from 114% to 153% among China's provinces. The differences in economic development as well as related differences in consumers' behavior, especially in the behavior of “marginal consumers”, have contributed to this heterogeneity, with a larger carbon tax (more than 110Yuan/tonne) needed in richer provinces such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian in order to bring about similar levels of carbon reductions nationwide.

A comparison of decomposition the decoupling carbon emissions from economic growth in transport sector of selected provinces in eastern, central and western China

The transport sector is steadily becoming a new major source of carbon emissions in China. A better understanding of decoupling economic outputs from carbon emissions in the Chinese transport sector could facilitate the country's move to low-carbon transport. This study combines the Tapio decoupling model and Log Mean Divisia Index method to develop a decoupling effort model, in order to quantify the state of decoupling between economic outputs and carbon emissions, investigate the effects of carbon emissions, and evaluate these decoupling efforts in the transport sector of six provinces in eastern, central and western China. The results show that: (i) the eastern region had achieved stable decoupling; the development of the central and western regions was imbalanced, with frequent flux in their states of decoupling; (ii) the pattern of driving factor of transport carbon emissions in three eastern, central and western was similar. The economic scale effect was the primary contributor to carbon emissions, while the energy intensity effect was the main inhibitor. The influence of the carbon intensity effect and the population effect was found to be quite weak; (iii) the three economic regions had all undertaken efforts to achieve decoupling, with the eastern region ranking first in the extent of these efforts, and the western region ranking last; (iv) the energy intensity was a weak effect in decoupling effort, indicating that their energy utilization efficiency is not optimal, and that there still exists considerable room for improvement. Finally, some policy recommendations are proposed.

The Spatiotemporal Pattern of Decoupling Transport CO2 Emissions from Economic Growth across 30 Provinces in China

Since 2005, China has become the largest emitter of CO2. The transport sector is a major source of CO2 emissions, and the most rapidly growing sector in terms of fuel consumption and CO2 emissions in China. This paper estimated CO2 emissions in the transport sector across 30 provinces through the IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) top-down method and identified the spatiotemporal pattern of the decoupling of transport CO2 emissions from economic growth during 1995 to 2016 by the modified Tapio’s decoupling model. The CO2 emissions in the transport sector increased from 103.10 million ton (Mt) in 1995 to 701.04 Mt in 2016. The year, 2005, was a turning point as the growth rate of transport CO2 emissions and the intensity of transport CO2 emissions declined. The spatial pattern of transport CO2 emissions and its decoupling status both exhibited an east-west differentiation. Nearly 80% of the provinces recently achieved decoupling, and absolute decoupling is beginning to take place. The local practices of Tianjin should be the subject of special attention. National carbon reduction policies have played a significant role in achieving a transition to low-carbon emissions in the Chinese transport sector, and the integration of multi-scale transport CO2 reduction policies will be promising for its decarbonisation.

Identifying the driving forces of CO2 emissions of China's transport sector from temporal and spatial decomposition perspectives.

The transport sector is the fourth largest industrial CO2 emitter in China, next to power sector, iron and steel industries, and nonmetallic mineral product industry, and plays an important role in reducing China's CO2 emissions. In this study, a temporal decomposition analysis model, i.e., Logistic Mean Division Index (LMDI), is developed to analyze the influencing factors of CO2 emissions in China's transport sector during 2000-2015. Then, a multi-regional spatial decomposition model is employed to identify the key factors to induce the differences in CO2 emissions of China's 30 regional transport sectors in 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015. Based on the empirical results, we find that both in the temporal and spatial perspectives, the main factors that affect CO2 emissions in the transport sector are the same ones. From the temporal perspective, the income effect is the dominant factor increasing CO2 emissions of transport sector, while energy intensity effect and transportation structure effect are the key influencing factors that curb the CO2 emissions of China's transport sector, during the whole study period. From the spatial perspective, the income effect, energy intensity effect, and transportation structure effect are the key influencing factors that enlarge the gap of CO2 emissions of various transport sectors in the key study years. More importantly, the less-developed regions and high energy intensity regions (i.e., the lower energy efficiency regions) are identified to have the great potential to reduce CO2 emissions of transport sector. Therefore, differentiated mitigation measures and interregional collaborations are encouraged to reduce transport sector's CO2 emissions in China.

Investigating CO2 mitigation potentials and the impact of oil price distortion in China's transport sector

The transport sector is a major source of oil consumption and CO2 emissions in China, however, due to the regulated pricing mechanism in China, the end-user oil price cannot reflect real market price and thus oil price distortion exists. Therefore, the main aim of this paper is to study the affecting mechanism of oil price distortion on CO2 emission mitigation. Firstly, the level of oil price distortion is evaluated and a dynamic trans-log cost function model is built to analyze the substitution relationship among energy products. Secondly, the own price elasticity and cross price elasticity for fuel demand are calculated based on provincial panel data of China's transport sector over 2004–2016. Finally, CO2 mitigation potentials are estimated by removing the impact of oil price distortion. Results show that: 1) there is positive oil price distortion over 2004–2016; 2) substitute relationship is observed between oil and coal, oil and electricity, and the substitution relationship is affected by factor substitution; 3) removing oil price distortion will reduce CO2 emissions of China's transport sector by 599 million tons in the studying period. Policies should focus removing the impact of oil price distortion, promoting electricity/oil substitution and promoting capital/energy substitution to mitigate CO2 emissions.

Spatial variation in the association between NO2 concentrations and shipping emissions in the Red Sea

Air pollution from shipping emissions poses significant health and environmental risks, particularly in the coastal regions. For the first time, this region as one of the busiest seas and most important international shipping lane in the world with significant nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emissions has been analyzed comprehensively. This paper aims to characterize and quantify the contribution of maritime transport sector emissions to NO2 concentrations in the Red Sea using local Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) model in a geographic information system (GIS) environment. Maritime traffic volume was estimated using SaudiSat satellite-based Automatic Identification System (S-AIS) data, and the remotely measured tropospheric NO2 concentrations data was acquired from the ozone monitoring instrument (OMI) satellite. A significant spatial variation in the NO2 values was detected across the Red Sea, with values ranging from 4.03 × 1014 to 41.39 × 1014 molecules/cm2. Most notably, the NO2 concentrations in international waters were more than double those in the western coastal regions, whereas the concentrations close to seaports were 100% higher than those over international waters. The results indicated that the local GWR model performed significantly better than the global ordinary least squares (OLS) regression model. The GWR model had a strong and significant overall coefficient of determination with an r2 of 0.94 (p < 0.005) in comparison to the OLS model with an r2 of 0.45 (p < 0.005). Maritime traffic volume and proximity to seaports weighted by shipping activities explained about 94% of the variations of NO2 concentrations in the Red Sea. The results of this study suggest that the S-AIS data and environmental satellite measurements can be used to assess the impacts of NO2 concentrations from shipping emissions. These findings should stimulate further research into using additional covariates to explain the NO2 concentrations in areas near seaports where the standardized residuals are high.

Technological direction prediction for battery electric bus under influence of China's new subsidy scheme

Battery electric buses (BEBs) play a very important role of reducing urban tailpipe emissions in transportation sector for China. The national strong incentive policies place China at the forefront of the BEBs' market in the world. However, challenges are even more severe owing to the negative effects of national subsidies on the BEBs industry and technologies’ option. The abovementioned problems indicate that the subsidy mechanism is not scientific and systematic. Therefore, this research focus on the comprehensive evaluating method of addressing the inner influencing principle of technological specification mentioned in new subsidy scheme on the technological development direction of BEBs. The evaluation indicators in the method include cost-benefit and electricity consumption rate and for different size BEBs. The scenario of maximum subsidy obtaining target based on the optimal install battery estimation is set up; then, the potential direction of the BEBs market penetration was investigated. The cost-benefit and energy consumption estimating models are set up to examine the economics of all size BEBs and the difference between BEBs and equivalent conventional bus. Furthermore, the potential positive and negative effects of the technological requirements in the subsidy scheme are investigated The results show that normal-charging BEBs, the market for light-duty BEBs will shrink greatly owing to significant reduction in the subsidy amounts. However, the market penetration of 12 m BEB will increase significantly. LFP batteries will dominate the normal-charging heavy-duty BEB market in near and medium term, but NCM–type traction batteries will gradually be dominating the energy storage market for normal-charging BEBs owing to increasing demands in terms of the energy density of traction batteries. However, the market penetration of fast-charging-type BEBs will growth more rapidly than ever before due to the great increasing in its cost-benefit.

Sustainable Road Transport: Alternative Fuels, Electrical Vehicles and Environmental Effects

Transportation sector enables the transfer of goods and services that forms the basis of the economy and the work of people. It supports global productivity and is a key for economic growth. On the other hand, transportation is largely based on fossil fuels and generates greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, it releases other pollutants and creates local air pollution. Although the air pollutant emissions of road transport of Turkey have decreased over the years due to new emission standards, greenhouse gas emisions of the same sector in Turkey have been sharply increased. Therefore, there is an urgent necessity of focusing on sustainable transport strategies to reduce emissions from transportation sector. The sustainability of the road transportation depends on alternative fuels and electric vehicles. Alternative fuels like biodiesel and bioethanol have already been used in motor vehicles for many years. Using alternative fuels reduce the release of air pollutant emissions except nitrogen oxides. However, alternative fuel production generally depends on local farming and not common every part of the world. Electric vehicles are a hope for road transport sustainability. Hybrid electric cars consume less fossil fuel and full electric cars run on only by electricity. If electricity comes from an alternative energy source, transportation by electric vehicles will be much more sustainable since it does not produce any greenhouse gas or air pollutants. This paper briefly discusses motor vehicle air pollution problem and gives some information about Turkish road transport sector emissions. Furthermore, it reviews sustainable road transport options mainly by focusing on alternative fuels and electric vehicles. Also, there exist some suggestions for policy makers about the sustainability of transportation sector. Keywords : Alternative fuels, electrical vehicles, environmental impacts, motor vehicles, sustainable road transport, Turkey DOI : 10.7176/JSTR/5-3-14