Energy Sector Emissions Research Articles

Going to the Source: Using an Upstream Point of Regulation for Energy in a National Chinese Emissions Trading System

There are many choices within the design of an emissions trading system. In this paper we focus on one specific aspect – the point of regulation for the energy sector. This choice affects transaction costs; comprehensiveness, and hence the amount of emissions covered and the extent to which the potential cost-effectiveness gains are realised; and credibility of the system. We discuss how an ‘upstream’ energy sector emissions trading system works and present arguments for going upstream (in particular, simplicity of administration) while also discussing arguments for other points of regulation in the light of Chinese circumstances. We further present experiences with the New Zealand system, the only system that is entirely upstream for energy, showing ways to address issues that may arise with an upstream system. Ultimately the success of emissions trading depends on flexible markets that operate in a relatively free and competitive way. Simply copying others' systems in the context of a largely controlled economy such as the Chinese one is likely to be ineffective; each system must be uniquely tailored to local circumstances, possibly in China more than ever before.

Opportunities to change development pathways toward lower greenhouse gas emissions through energy efficiency

There is a multiplicity of development pathways in which low energy sector emissions are not necessarily associated with low economic growth. However, changes in development pathways can rarely be imposed from the top. On this basis, examples of energy efficiency opportunities to change development pathways toward lower emissions are presented in this paper. We review opportunities at the sectoral and macro level. The potential for action on nonclimate policies that influence energy use and emissions are presented. Examples are drawn from policies already adopted and implemented in the energy sector. The paper discusses relationships between energy efficiency policies and their synergies and tradeoffs with sustainable development and greenhouse gas emissions. It points to ways that energy efficiency could be mainstreamed into devel?opment choices.

Compilation and application of a primary PM 2.5 emissions inventory with high sectoral resolution in Japan

To elucidate the macro-structure of the PM 2.5 emissions generated by Japan's economic activities, this paper presents an emission inventory of primary particles of PM 2.5 with high sectoral resolution based on the Japanese Input–Output Tables, comprising some 400 sectors. These primary PM 2.5 emissions were estimated by multiplying the estimated energy consumption associated with each fuel type by a PM 10 emission factor incorporating the technological level of dust collection in each sector and the mass ratio of PM 2.5 to PM 10. Non-energy emissions from agricultural open burning were also determined. Total PM 2.5 emissions in 2000 were 252 kt, 49% of which were due to mobile emission sources. Changes in total PM 2.5 emissions between 1990 and 2000 were also calculated. This showed that a substantial increase in energy sector emissions due to rising coal consumption was offset by a sharp decline in emissions from road vehicles and shipping vessels, resulting in an overall decrease in total emissions. In addition, the emissions induced by economic demand in each sector were quantified by means of input–output analysis, which revealed that demand for construction, foods and communications and services constituted the principal causes of real domestic emissions. An assessment of sectoral contributions to PM 2.5 emissions that takes into account the effects of human exposure, expressed as external costs, suggests that the contribution of transportation is greater than indicated on the grounds of direct emissions alone.

Post-Kyoto energy strategy of the Russian Federation, outlooks and prerequisites of the Kyoto mechanisms implementation in the country

Energy sector emissions from Russia have declined by about 33% from 1990 levels. We estimate that some 60–70% of the reduction is due to economic decline, and about 8–12% of it is due to reforms in the energy sector; the remainder being due to the wider use of natural gas and structural changes in the economy. Vigorous institutional and technological measures to promote energy efficiency could lead to savings of over 100 million t.c.e. per year by 2010, and keep CO 2 emissions fairly close to current levels over the decade. In our view, international emissions trading should not lead to global emissions growth, but should facilitate the best energy saving and efficiency. Consequently, we propose that the available assigned amount should be divided into two components. That part arising from ‘type 1’ reductions, produced by special projects and measures relating to GHG reduction taken since 1990, should be freely traded; whereas the remaining ‘type 2’ surplus, without a clear link to real emission reduction activity, should only be traded if the revenues are recycled into special projects resulting in emissions reduction equal to or more than the amount of emissions sold.

Post-Kyoto energy strategy of the Russian Federation, outlooks and prerequisites of the Kyoto mechanisms implementation in the country

Energy sector emissions from Russia have declined by about 33% from 1990 levels. We estimate that some 60–70% of the reduction is due to economic decline, and about 8–12% of it is due to reforms in the energy sector; the remainder being due to the wider use of natural gas and structural changes in the economy. Vigorous institutional and technological measures to promote energy efficiency could lead to savings of over 100 million t.c.e. per year by 2010, and keep CO2 emissions fairly close to current levels over the decade. In our view, international emissions trading should not lead to global emissions growth, but should facilitate the best energy saving and efficiency. Consequently, we propose that the available assigned amount should be divided into two components. That part arising from ‘type 1’ reductions, produced by special projects and measures relating to GHG reduction taken since 1990, should be freely traded; whereas the remaining ‘type 2’ surplus, without a clear link to real emission reduction activity, should only be traded if the revenues are recycled into special projects resulting in emissions reduction equal to or more than the amount of emissions sold.

The coming hydrogen age: Preventing world climatic disruption

Over the next decade economic and human disasters will be caused by climatic disruption attributed to greenhouse gases. The public response will assign much responsibility for these disasters to the energy sector. Prudent energy sector leadership should prepare strategies to mitigate or exploit these circumstances. These strategies must be built upon the knowledge that a practical technological pathway exists which can first blunt and then reverse energy sector contributions to greenhouse gas climatic disruption. It is difficult to argue scenarios that do not, in time, make this pathway inevitable. The hydrogen age sits at the end of the pathway. The introduction to this paper describes first the perception and then the reality of energy sector contributions to climate disruption. The perception will probably lead to a non-discriminating attack on the energy sector coupled with the traditional societal reaction: “We must do without.” Part 1 of the paper presents concepts and principles for assessing and responding to environmental impact. These include the role of process changes vs collectors, the impact of material flows, and the concept of investive vs consumptive resource use. These principles are subsequently used to develop a better appreciation of how energy sector emissions will contribute to anticipated climatic change, and the nature of the changes expected. Part 2 discusses the coming hydrogen age using two themes: by describing the underlying principles that will drive the transition to the hydrogen age; and by characterizing the nature of the age itself. The transition can be seen as occurring in two sequential but overlapping waves: integrated energy systems and neat-H 2 technologies. The former will provide a robust platform for the latter. Part 3 explains integrated energy systems—the first transition wave. This transition is developing naturally from the evolution of energy intensive industries today. But to gain the significant benefits that integration provides—improved systemic resilience, more effective use of resources, higher energy conversion efficiencies, and major reductions in CO 2 emissions—a more planned development will be necessary. This development will likely be guided by technical principles which are outlined in the paper. Still, the real need may lie more in creative inter-institutional linkages than in technological advances. Part 4 reviews the nature of the opportunity—from the optic of developing strategies that may be considered either business interruption insurance or business development positioning.