Emergent Middle Class Research Articles

Dressed to thrill: the Victorian postmodern and counter-archival imaginings in the work of Mary Sibande

Hyper-real blackness and the embodied poetics of the sublime Her eyes are closed, as if in a trance or a grown-up game of blind-man's bluff. Her arms are stretched out with the tentativeness of someone lost in the dark, but it is a plane of apparently unmitigated whiteness that she is navigating--blinding whiteness all about her, as crisp, clean and untainted as her headscarf and apron. There is nothing here to touch or hold onto, no familiar recognisable objects to help her feel her way to a known destination. She is in uncharted territory, the empty space of risk and initiation. Meet Sophie (2008) (1), a sculptural alter ego conjured to life by artist Mary Sibande from fiberglass and silicone casts of her own body. Sibande was born in 1982, into a line of domestic workers that stretches back three generations, and grew up in Barberton, Mpumalanga. A young Johannesburg-based contemporary artist, she emerged into adulthood in the post-apartheid era, graduating with a B.Tech (Hens) in Visual Art from the University of Johannesburg in 2007. Like Lawrence Lemaoana and Nicolas Hlobo, she is part of a young generation of future-minded black artists who live and work out of studios in August House, a light industrial building from the 1940s situated on the gritty eastern fringe of 21st-century metropolitan Johannesburg. From this vantage point of relative freedom and autonomy, she pays homage to her forebears by giving free rein to their imagined desires, liberating their spirits from the ordained strictures of remembrance. Sibande's thwarted initial intention of becoming a fashion designer plays itself out in her work as a visual artist, through the lavishly hybrid costumery of her static sculptural nemesis. (1) The peat-black figure wears the starched uniform of a maid, the collar and apron rimmed in homely Broderie Anglaise, a technique of embroidery which originated in 16th-century Europe, (2) but is still widely used in the collar and apron details of contemporary South African maids' uniforms readily available at local supermarkets. Although the South African maid's uniform has been largely desexualised by the spectre of rampant racial exploitation and subservience in this sector, the uniform also ironically evokes the black-and-white French maid's outfit, with its erotic associations harking back to the sexual power dynamics in the pornographic writings of the Marquis de Sade, for whom servitude seemed to function as an appalling kind of proto-Viagra. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] But in Sibande's sculptures, the small standard-issue note of deference to European sensibilities goes beyond the neat trimmings of Broderie Anglaise, escaping tidy domestication to infect other elements of Sophie's attire. The sleeves of her royal-blue (3) dress are puffed, and the full, wide skirt, supported by a scaffolding of undergarments, falls to the ground in a voluminous flourish that recalls the dress of an elegant Victorian lady. Her hands and arms are sheathed in vintage black satin dress gloves, radically disrupting our associative categories so we are unable to establish whether it is the marquess or the maid we are encountering here. The initial scrambling effect is breathtakingly potent--as if the mind has been subjected to an act of associative hijacking. The carriage ferrying hegemonic thought through the forests of the night has been taken by the bandits and highwaymen of the new. Sophie's eyes are always closed, as if in a 'constant ecstasy of fantasy' (Dodd 2009). It is in her mind that her dress becomes a thing of voluminous Victorian splendour. We glimpse her in this frozen moment, as if caught in a fit of hysterical conjuring or sublime prayer, and it seems that it is through this act of wizardry or incantation that the real--her very body and being--has been so fiercely affected. This quasi-religious tenor comes through more patently in other incarnations of her persona, most notably I Put a Spell on Me (2009), in which the Sophie figure reaches out towards the heavens while in the raptures of divine guidance from a Church of Zion staff (archly adorned with multiple replications of the emblem of ultra-luxury French fashion house Louis Vuitton, arguably the most favoured 'bling' token of South Africa's emergent black middle class). …

BOLLYWOOD'S INDIA: HINDI CINEMA AS A GUIDE TO MODERN INDIA

This article propounds the thesis that Bollywood cinema, the modern Indian cinema based in Mumbai (Bombay) is a better guide to the realities of modern India than other, more scholarly works. The author, who distinguishes and describes a number of different types of Bollywood film, suggests that these films are an unparalleled guide to the thoughts, aspirations and attitudes of the hundreds of millions of members of the emergent middle classes. For example, their view of history is purveyed by the cinema, not by books written by academic historians; their attitudes to politics are formed by films, not by the speeches given by politicians.

Articulating middle-class culture, consumption, and postsocialism

Over the past decade, there has been a renewed and growing interest in exploring the formation of the middle-classes and middle-class culture among anthropologists, sociologists, and political scientists. Several studies have focused on the rise of the new middle-classes spurred by Asia's rapid economic expansion (see Fernandes 2006; Goodman 2008; Lett 1998; Liechty 2003; Zhang 2010, for example). Researchers on other regions have also begun to explore the emergent middle classes in the context of neoliberalism and economic restructuring. Jennifer Patico's fresh and fascinating ethnography on consumption, value, and middle-class making in Russia is an important contribution to this on-going conversation in at least two ways. First, it extends this discussion to a postsocialist context by demonstrating how the making of a middle-class is very much contingent upon a specific time and space. As such, history and locality are essential to the articulation of middle classes. Second, it makes a compelling theoretical argument that connects class specific subject-making to the logics of value and everyday consumption practices. Although many studies have shown that middle-class culture cannot be fully understood without examining consumption and consumerism, Patico's book is one of the few that makes a serious effort to theorize this linkage by taking into account discourses and practices of ordinary Russian people and by addressing larger anthropological concerns of value, morality, and social change. Patico's ethnography is situated in postsocialist Saint Petersburg where she carried out long-term field research in the late 1990s within a particular social group?public school teachers who grew up under Soviet modernity and now face a very different condition of post-Soviet life. This is an interesting choice because most studies on the middle-classes elsewhere have largely focused on relatively prosperous groups with upward mobility?for example, private entrepreneurs and professionals who enjoy more consuming power and in some places serve as an

Marginality Triumphant? On the Asymmetry of Conflict in the Art World

The relatively stable cultural structure that privileged the artist's individual autonomy has had to respond to challenges from social and political sources that intrude into developments intrinsic to existing art forms. With the expansion of markets and consumerism, the arts are increasingly called upon to be innovative in order to appeal to emergent middle classes. Historically, academic or similar prestige systems associated with national states came face to face with competitors, found largely on the margins of art worlds. Artistic change may result either from internal developments in aesthetic forms, or stem from the intrusion of sources external to established traditions. I want to argue that increasingly the sources of innovation stem from the margins; they are borne by agents who, rather than being central to the most important institutions of culture, arise in their peripheries. Their marginality may be seen from two perspectives: it may result from choice (as the deviant, or “maverick” of Howard Becker 1982) or from spontaneous or involuntary positioning (as “insane,” “naif,” or “primitive”) of “outsider artists” (Zolberg and Cherbo 1997). Whether acting deliberately or as pawns managed by other agents (Dubin 1999), these artists engage in an asymmetrical conflict in which the political stakes are high. Thus, the weak confront the strong—the establishment. “Marginals” and their allies strive to profit from using the resources of their more powerful adversaries, who occupy established gatekeeping roles. Without asserting that all art worlds are necessarily wholly engaged “in political” strife, examination of a variety of cases casts light on the contentious nature of innovation.

Mastering the Art of the Sensible: Julia Child, Nationalist

Mastering the Art of the Sensible: Julia Child, Nationalist Kennan Ferguson (bio) Cookbooks are not usually conceived of as political texts, as the demands they make upon us are not traditionally within the realm of politics. They do not declaim, as do manifestos. They do not constrict, as do laws. They do not command accord, as do arguments. Their stipulations are often vague (“until browned”) and their audiences inattentive (many cookbooks, after all, are bought for the ideals of cooking and the beauty of the photography). Indeed, even their narrative form is different from most texts: they fail to tell a story, and one dips into them depending upon one’s time, appetite, and taste. But cookbooks do form who we are in ways large and small. “Tell me what you eat,” Anthelme Brillat-Savarin famously wrote, “and I will tell you what you are.” In this essay I follow the insights of Jacques Rancière, who attends to politics as the “distribution of the sensible”: the means and effects of what we can sense determine the boundaries of what we can do and who we are. To look at the openings and promises of sensation is to analyze political potentiality and possibility, as well as to note their limits and constraints. Such affective dynamics have material (and materialized) traces, and a cookbook provides a printed, textualized locale of taste and identity. Arts of nationalism “Democracy can never be identified with a juridico-political form,” argues Rancière, not because it is indifferent to such formulations, but because “the power of the people is always beneath and beyond these forms.”i Rancière privileges people over the modes of governmentality that both claim to represent those people and derive their legitimacy from such claims. In doing so, he seeks to deactivate the historically naturalized affiliation between governmental structures and humans, between the always-partially-illegitimate claim of representation and those thus represented. The traditional and exemplary governmental structure which purports to represent the people is the state. In its most unproblematic forms, the state closely overlaps its powerful counterpart: the nation. When nations and states definitively coincide, state-identities become strongly affective, emotional, and beloved; thus the “French,” for example, begin to self-identify with a state-centric geographic identity. So the nation (France) arises from a juridico-political authority recognized by a consortium of post-nineteenth century statist entities. But how is the nation more than this? That is, short of reducing France to a singular procedural entity (a constitution, for example), how do people inside or outside of France’s political boundaries conceive of – and engage with – such an ideo-identity formation? Benedict Anderson’s concept of the “imagined community” provides a start to answering this query; for Anderson, the emergence of a common linguistic normativity (specifically via print capitalism) initiates imaginative demands on a set of people who begin to consider themselves a citizenry.ii But Anderson’s conceptualization not only oversimplifies a confluence of currents, folding a large series of state-making practices into a single European model, but also begs the central question by presuming the very nation that it attempts to explain: what determines the specific makeup of the nation so imagined? For Anderson, the substance of the nation (France) remains less important than the mechanism. Yet without a comprehension of the meanings of “France,” one cannot properly trace what print capitalism brings into the imagination of its created citizens. Priscilla Parkhurst Ferguson provides one intriguing interpretation of this dynamic: she argues that Paris centered the French imaginary. This is neither the political centralization of the French Government (which undergoes radical changes over the course of the nineteenth century, for example), nor even the standards and centralization of Parisian culture (which does as well). Instead, she argues, the multiple iterations and interwoven pluralities of Parisian cuisine form France.iii Ferguson places this emergence at the intersection of French cooking and the creation of the spatial locale where food would be purchased and eaten by the emergent middle classes: “The early nineteenth century conjunction of the cuisine – the culinary code – and the restaurant, henceforth the site of culinary invention, gave the social organization of the...

The Cosmopolitanism of Environmental Activists in Sri Lanka

This paper examines the emergence in Sri Lanka of transcultural thinking about environmental issues as well as the activism it engenders by examining the role of the Anglophone Sri Lankan elite as the chief protagonists historically of environmentalism in the country. It also examines one of Sri Lanka's leading NGOs, Environmental Foundation Ltd. (EFL) as an example of the activism of this class. EFL's perspective on environmental issues has its origins in the transformations wrought by colonialism in the country's class structure and in the introduction of European ideas of nature to the country's newly emergent middle-class. Modelled on the Natural Resources Defense Council of the United States, EFL was a new kind of environmental organization in Sri Lanka and a response to globalization and Sri Lanka's increasing integration into the global economy. Unlike the handful of environmental NGOS that existed in the late seventies, which were essentially pressure groups, EFL was conceived, on the model of NRDC, as a public interest law firm, and drew on international models to frame its arguments about the application of the law in the cause of environmental protection. This paper examines how these various factors—the social class of the activists and the processes of institution building—shaped a cosmopolitan environmental discourse in Sri Lanka whose roots lie in urban Sri Lankan middle class culture as it emerged and was transformed during colonial rule and in the various discourses of globalization that have been drawn on by Sri Lankan activists to craft their own arguments.

Pocket borough to county borough: power relations, elites and politics in nineteenth-century Grimsby

ABSTRACTThis article considers the relationship between landed culture and the emergent middle classes in a rapidly expanding urban context substantially removed from the more familiar examples. The port of Grimsby expanded rapidly in the second half of the nineteenth century, displaying many facets in common with other industrial centres and boasting a substantial middle-class presence from a relatively early stage. At the same time the extent to which Grimsby's middle classes assumed a leading role in the town's development is questionable and subject to qualification.

Andrew Jackson Downing and the Tyranny of Taste

The following essay examines the published writing of Andrew Jackson Downing, the early nineteenth century architect and landscape gardener. As the most popular writer and commentator on house and landscape design of his time Downing profoundly shaped – both literally and metaphorically – the social and geographical environment of the emergent middle class. Relating his writing to the promotion of a shared nationalism as embodied in the landscape painting of the Hudson River School, the essay assesses Downing's drive to order by seeing it as a response to the general violence and disorder of the antebellum American city and demonstrates that the defining logic of Downing's project was the universalization of bourgeois taste, uniting the mutually legitimating discourses of privacy, consumption and self‐control.

Bourgeois Vedanta: The Colonial Roots of Middle-class Hinduism

The quest to balance the material and the spiritual has a long history in the Hindu tradition, as it does in the West. While Hindus recognize desire to be a central human value, they also see it as a cause of human suffering. This tension persists within contemporary Hinduism, especially among an emergent middle class that seeks to balance spiritual fulfillment and worldly success. If we are to understand recent manifestations of Hinduism, we would do well to explore their roots in the colonial period. That is the goal of this essay, which explores the affinity between one early colonial version of Vedānta and the socio-economic activities of its bourgeois promoters. Working from a rare set of Bengali discourses delivered at meetings of the Tattvabodhinī Sabhā during its inaugural year (1839–40), this essay demonstrates how a rescripted Vedānta provided members with a worldview that legitimated both their spiritual concerns and their worldly activities.

Phantom Limbs: South Indian Dance and Immigrant Reifications of the Female Body

This paper explores the phenomenology of migration and gender, seeking to understand how it is that a certain construction of ‘Indianness’ and of womanhood finds one form of expression in the enrolment of middle-class girls in south Indian and other ‘classical’ dance schools. The paper argues that the immigrant situation recalls and opens up to be retrieved, an earlier history of nationalism. It does so, not in the form of intellectual recall, but because the structure of affect in the immigrant present resembles an earlier crisis of the emergent middle class under British colonialism. In this situation, the patriarchal universe of the immigrant requires wives and daughters to magically function as phantom limbs, providing an unstable and illusory impression of continuing to enjoy a grip on the world. The paper interrogates this impression from the perspective of young Indian women deeply involved in Indian dance.

Americanism Musically: Nation, Evolution, and Public Education at the Columbian Exposition, 1893

The Columbian Exposition (the World's Fair in Chicago, 1893) was intended to represent the entire progress of human history, with American civilization as its culminating triumph. The Exposition celebrated the four-hundredth anniversary of Columbus's discovery of the New World; it restaged that discovery in myriad ways: from the display of “savage races” on the Midway to the construction of an emergent American middle class as civilization's newest noble savages, hungry for education. Music was an integral part of the Exposition. America's musical elite took an active role in the fair's promotion and design. The Exposition also stimulated a flood of writing on the nature and future of “truly American” music. This article examines American musical culture at the Exposition, with attention to music as art, science, and commerce three categories at the heart of the Exposition's formal definition of music. The network of mutual reinforcements, contradictions and the related concepts of nation, race, and evolution has powerful implications for the ensuing history of music in America. Analysis of the educational agenda of music at the Exposition suggests it taught its visitors--5 to 10 percent of the American population--a great deal about race, class, nationhood, and their identity as consumers. Reading the musical criticism, speculative philosophy, and patriotic grandstanding that accompanied the fair shows how musical thought of the day relied on evolutionary theory.

Of Consorts and Harlots in Thai Popular History

This essay is an exploration of one aspect of the politics of gender representation in Thailand, namely, how the portrayals of Siamese women in Thai popular histories form part of the present-day shaping of gender relations. I argue that moving in tandem with developments in academic historiography, popular history since the 1980s has become a battleground for cultural hegemony.Hitherto the preserve of antiquarians, popular history has caught the interest of the emergent middle class, who are intent on inscribing their reading of the past on the Thai cultural landscape. Where gender relations are concerned, the middle class has worked out a modern rationale for the traditional view that women are subordinate to men. However, critical scholars, alert to what they see as the perpetuation of the historical subordination of women through the medium of popular history, have sought to stem the tide by addressing their critiques of the middle-class interpretations to a popular audience.

Huxley: Evolution's High Priest by A. Desmond

Michael Joseph, 1997. £20.00 hbk (xiv+370 pages) ISBN 0 7181 38821

Staging Depth: Eugene O'Neill & the Politics of Psychological Discourse (review)

Reviewed by: Staging Depth: Eugene O’Neill & The Politics Of Psychological Discourse Julia A. Walker Staging Depth: Eugene O’Neill & The Politics Of Psychological Discourse. By Joel Pfister. Cultural Studies of the United States. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995; pp. xxiv + 327. $45.00 cloth, $17.95 paper. Because our understanding of Eugene O’Neill’s plays has been so profoundly shaped by the notion of the psychological self, we have tended to overlook how our sense of the psychological self has been shaped in turn by the plays of Eugene O’Neill. In his new book, Staging Depth: Eugene O’Neill and the Politics of Psychological Discourse, Joel Pfister looks at how O’Neill staged a model of psychological “depth” which negotiated the changing shape of identity for middle-class audiences in the early to mid-20th century United States. He argues that this model of the psychological self not only situated O’Neill as a serious literary artist but functioned to transform his audience’s class anxieties into individual neuroses. Pfister begins his study by contextualizing the biographical tradition of O’Neill scholarship within the intertwining histories of the bourgeois family and the psychological self. Those who know Pfister’s first book, The Production of Personal Life: Class, Gender, and the Psychological in Hawthorne’s Fiction, will recognize a common concern here, namely the way the notion of the psychological self was created for a burgeoning professional-managerial class anxious about its producer-status under capitalism. Following through on his thesis that Hawthorne began the work of producing a psychological identity for an emergent middle class, Pfister [End Page 113] shows in his new book how O’Neill helped to secure that identity (and his reputation) by staging the psychological self according to a model of “depth.” Based upon popular interpretations of Freud, O’Neill constructed his version of the psychological self as a web of neuroses and desires which encoded the fractured history of the individual and his/her relationship to the family. Pfister discusses how O’Neill’s plays not only bracket this tortured and agonizing self apart from its cultural and material context, but aestheticize the pathologized self as emotionally-fraught, intellectual, and/or “deep.” Pfister suggests that this construction of the self performed for the professional-managerial class attending O’Neill’s plays, offered an explanation for the contradictions they experienced under capitalism. The psychological self that O’Neill popularized functioned to internalize social conflicts and class anxieties, making them appear as individual neuroses which could be mystified as both “natural” and “universal.” Pfister cites as evidence reviews and criticism of O’Neill’s contemporaries on the Left who accused him of using psychology to avoid addressing problems of the social real. By doing so, he recovers an important body of criticism which has been all too often omitted from critical overviews of O’Neill’s career. Pfister reminds us, for instance, that Lionel Trilling had noted that the middle class “wanted certain of its taboos broken and O’Neill broke them” (quoted on 96). But, as Pfister points out, the energy used to break these taboos derived from the radical social movements in and around Greenwich Village in the 1910s. He shows how O’Neill’s interest in the feminist-anarchism of Emma Goldman, linking sexual ownership to property relations, developed into an interest in the Individualist anarchism espoused by Benjamin Tucker which rooted lusts and desires within a purely psychological framework. Thus, Pfister gives us a bridge for understanding how O’Neill’s interest in psychological conflict developed out of an initial interest in social conflict. If the book only provided this important context for understanding how the psychological self became naturalized within O’Neill’s plays, it would be well worth reading. But Staging Depth goes on to show how O’Neill also demonstrates an awareness of the way the self may be consciously shaped and staged for others. Conjecturing that a constructed model of the self might have been made available to O’Neill by fellow Provincetown playwright Susan Glaspell, Pfister proposes a wonderful reconsideration of her plays. Offering brief readings of Trifles, Woman’s Honor, and...

Design in Deloney's Jack of Newbury

Jack of Newbury's surface realism in characters, setting, and speech has led to an underestimation of its historical and literary value. A close reading reveals the consistent use of the Greco-Roman ethical-political conception of the state, epitomized in the figure of the ruler. Deloney shows his familiarity with this tradition, probably known to him through Erasmus and Sidney, in the three controlling motifs of his novel. First, the middle class of weavers, represented in Jack's household and dramatized in allegories and symbols, is portrayed as a self-sufficient state where peace and harmony reign. Second, this state is shown to be such because of the nature of its ruler, Jack, a benevolent, generous, wise man. Third, the middle-class way of life—hard work, thriftiness, material gains—serves as princely education; accordingly, Jack, from a menial position, goes on to become ruler of the state. Jack of Newbury, as a systematical reordering of an aristocratic tradition, represents the world view of the emergent middle class; and as such, a momentous shift in the social temper of the Renaissance and an important step in the evolution of the novel.

Régimes militaires et classes sociales en Afrique noire. Une hypothèse

Military regimes and social classes in black Africa: a hypothesis, by Tatania Yannopoulos and Denis Martin Examples from the history of the African States since their independence show that the purpose of military intervention in political life has been either to take the place of an emergent middle class which was weak and whose position in power was threatened, or to settle conflicts between ruling factions when the former were likely to endanger the existing power structure, or to act as a spearhead on behalf of the privileged classes ousted by progressive forces. From this standpoint, the case of reputedly progressive regimes established after military coups d'Etat poses a question; in fact, it would seem that these regimes are set up to replace leaders who are either too corrupt or are incapable of modernizing society. The circumstances surrounding their emergence thus prompt them to use language of a "progressive" nature, whereas their actual policies differ very little from those implemented by other military regimes. The hypothesis advanced here makes allowance for a certain number of factors operating inside Black Africa. It is deliberately confined to an examination of these factors, though it does not deny - on the contrary - the importance of the peripheral position of the continent, i.e. of all the outside forces which have intervened, and continue to intervene, in African politics. [Revue française de science politique XXII (4), août 1972, pp. 847-882.]

Nationalism and Social Classes in British West Africa

Previous articleNext article No AccessNationalism and Social Classes in British West AfricaMartin L. Kilson, Jr.Martin L. Kilson, Jr. Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The Journal of Politics Volume 20, Number 2May, 1958 Sponsored by the Southern Political Science Association Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.2307/2127045 Views: 95Total views on this site Citations: 12Citations are reported from Crossref PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Ayodele Oniku Social Class and Consumer Behaviour in Sub-Saharan Africa, (Jan 2020): 147–168.https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-3019-1.ch008Ayodele Oniku Social Class and Consumer Behavior in Sub-Saharan Africa, (Jan 2019): 195–217.https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-7906-9.ch009Felix Meier zu Selhausen, Marco H. D. van Leeuwen, Jacob L. Weisdorf Social mobility among Christian Africans: evidence from Anglican marriage registers in Uganda, 1895-2011, The Economic History Review 71, no.44 (Dec 2017): 1291–1321.https://doi.org/10.1111/ehr.12616Roger Southall (Middle-) Class analysis in Africa: does it work?, Review of African Political Economy 45, no.157157 (Jun 2018): 467–477.https://doi.org/10.1080/03056244.2018.1482826Ayodele Oniku Social Class and Consumer Behaviour in Sub-Saharan Africa, (Jan 2016): 361–382.https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0282-1.ch016Danielle Resnick The Political Economy of Africa's Emergent Middle Class: Retrospect and Prospects, Journal of International Development 27, no.55 (Jul 2015): 573–587.https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3110Sarah Karinge The Elite Factor in Sub-Saharan Africa’s Development, Journal of Developing Societies 29, no.44 (Nov 2013): 435–455.https://doi.org/10.1177/0169796X13503200Michael Crowder The Cambridge History of Africa, (Mar 2008).https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521224093J. D. Y. Peel Social and cultural change, (Dec 1984): 142–191.https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521224093.006Chong-Do Hah, Jeffrey Martin Toward a Synthesis of Conflict and Integration Theories of Nationalism, World Politics 27, no.33 (Jul 2011): 361–386.https://doi.org/10.2307/2010125Oyeniyi Osundina Nkrumah: From the Beginning to the End of His Political Career a Bibliography of His Role in Ghana, His Overthrow and His Death, A Current Bibliography on African Affairs 6, no.44 (Jun 1973): 431–462.https://doi.org/10.1177/001132557300600404Immanuel Wallerstein Class and Class-Conflict in Contemporary Africa, Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines 7, no.33 (Mar 2014): 375–380.https://doi.org/10.1080/00083968.1973.10803704