Emergent Bilinguals Research Articles

Language and Words: How Vocabulary Teaching Indexes Teacher Histories and Beliefs about Language

AbstractTo support emergent bilinguals in the content area classroom, applied linguists suggest teachers add metalinguistic conversations to their pedagogical repertoire. However, such language‐centered pedagogies may become difficult to enact when a teacher sees language at the word level. This comparative teacher case study explores how teacher Pedagogical Language Knowledge was observed in two upper elementary teachers working with emergent bilinguals in the social studies classroom. Through a novel discourse analytic scheme that traces a teacher’s linguistic dispositions, I examine the relationship between beliefs about language and instructional practice that reveal teachers place a disproportionate emphasis on vocabulary study. Findings endorse professional support initiatives that allow teachers to explore their histories as language learners while offering sustained exposure to how non‐lexical features of academic language may be embedded into disciplinary instruction.

Korean Middle School EFL Emergent Bilinguals’ Transactional Meaning-Making Regarding Multiculturalism through Translanguaging in Book Club Discussions

Korean Middle School EFL Emergent Bilinguals’ Transactional Meaning-Making Regarding Multiculturalism through Translanguaging in Book Club Discussions

Breaking the Silence: A Critical Review of Language Policy and Planning for Long-Term English Learners

Despite scholarship on emergent bilingual students that continues to evolve, the subgroup of emergent bilinguals who are labeled as long-term English learners (LTELs) have been overlooked and underserved for too long. LTELs refer to English learners who have been educated in a U.S. school for six years or more. This literature review is aimed at bringing awareness to this subgroup population and identifying the characteristics and classification process of LTELs described in the present scholarship. The review critically examines the de facto policy about LTELs from perspectives of the current climate of standardized tests (language management), the label itself (language ideology), and programs and schooling experience of these students (language practice). The literature review not only speaks to the stereotypes, struggles, and challenges that LTELs face, but also calls for future research studies to be conducted in addressing these problems pedagogically, institutionally, and systematically. Keywordslong-term English learners, English proficiency, language policy, standardized test, labeling

Review of Bernstein (2020): (Re)defining Success in Language Learning: Positioning, Participation and Young Emergent Bilinguals at School

Abstract This article reviews (Re)defining Success in Language Learning: Positioning, Participation and Young Emergent Bilinguals at School £29.959781788929004

“We Sort of Dance Around the Race Thing”: Race-Evasiveness in Teacher Education

The racial and linguistic diversity of U.S. classrooms has drawn attention to the intersecting dynamics of race, racism, and language learning in teacher education. While most studies in this vein focus on teachers, almost no research has focused on teacher educators themselves. Therefore, this study draws on interviews with teacher educators to document how they addressed—or more often, evaded—the topics of race and racism. Participants ( n = 33) were instructors for state-mandated courses on teaching emergent bilinguals for general educators across the state of Massachusetts. Through the lens of poststructural discourse analysis, the findings of this study demonstrate that race-evasiveness is not a byproduct of passive omission, but instead involves active, discursive effort. These findings underscore the importance of individual and collective efforts to disrupt race-evasiveness, but also illustrate the limits of surface-level race-intentionality for advancing antiracism in teacher education.

Rethinking “Equity Sticks”: Engaging Emergent Bilinguals in Discussing Texts

AbstractText‐related oral participation is ubiquitous in literacy and language instruction. As such, considering how invitations to these interactions are framed is critical, as this framing is directly implicated in the design of equitable classrooms. In this Teaching Tip, one common technique teachers have been encouraged to use—a class set of “equity sticks”—is reconsidered through the lens of asset‐based instruction for all learners including emergent bilinguals (EBs). Reframing how EBs are invited to respond to texts requires that teachers get to know their students, privilege multilingualism, provide scaffolding for oral discussion, and encourage responses that transcend linguistic modalities.

Promoting Student Discourse in a Linguistically Diverse Community-of-Learners Classroom

This autoethnographic inquiry explored the effects of a positive classroom culture in a South Los Angeles high school by addressing the questions, “How might efforts to establish a community-of-learners classroom affect frequency of student discourse (both oral and written) and understanding of science content? Furthermore, how might the results of these efforts differ within the Emergent Bilingual and Non-Emergent Bilingual student populations?” The focus group consisted of three biology classes with a mixture of Emergent Bilingual (EB) students and Non-EB students; each class was composed of about 30% EB students whose primary language was most commonly Spanish. A multitude of techniques, such as community circles and consistent group work within heterogeneous EB and Non-EB groups, were utilized to create a community-of-learners in each class. Students participated in an independent weekly survey that examined their frequency of participation and confidence levels regarding oral discourse. Students were also surveyed weekly regarding their preferred method of expressing content knowledge with options encompassing verbal, written, and visual opportunities. Data was collected for this inquiry through the analysis of the student surveys, written observations (field notes) of classroom and group discussions, and a final community circle. The results showed that a positive classroom culture and access to varied opportunities for discourse allowed students of various backgrounds to share their knowledge more readily and consistently.

Newcomers as Teachers: Enacting Linguistic Ideologies and Practices in an Internship Setting

ABSTRACT This paper explores the experiences of two high school newcomers who chose to participate in an internship program, assisting elementary school students, some of whom were also emergent bilinguals. This study used ethnographic and visual methodologies to explore young people’s evolving understanding of teaching, learning, and languaging as members of a community of practice within the internship. Both students rooted their practices in their work with children in their critiques of language policies that they had experienced. The narratives that the interns shared highlighted how the set of linguistic and cultural-historical repertoires of practice that they entered with shaped how they engaged with and contributed to the classroom communities in which they were placed.

Do English Language Development Curriculum Materials Matter for Students’ English Proficiency?

Castañeda v. Pickard mandated that educational programs for emergent bilinguals be tested for program efficacy. As English language development (ELD) curricular materials are one part of an instructional program, we assess this mandate by examining the effectiveness of ELD materials in Texas, a large, diverse U.S. state with large numbers of emergent bilingual (EB) students. Using local linear matching, we find robust evidence that schools that do not purchase any ELD curricula have significantly lower English language proficiency scores relative to schools that purchase state-adopted ELD materials. In contrast, there is no significant difference between schools that adopt the two most popular ELD curricula in the state. This study suggests that curriculum materials matter for EBs’ English proficiency and implies that states should take a more active role in ensuring students have access to these materials.

The English referencing behaviors of first- and second-grade Spanish–English emergent bilinguals in oral narrative retells

AbstractThis study investigated differences in the English referencing behaviors in the context of oral narrative retell between typically developing first- and second-grade Spanish–English emergent bilingual children in dual language immersion and English-only instructional contexts (N = 105). Children heard and retold Mercer Mayer wordless picture books, and analyses were conducted to examine how they used nominals and pronominals to maintain and switch reference to potential thematic protagonists in the story. Multivariate analysis of variance showed significant grade-level differences in the proportion of pronominals used to switch and maintain reference to BOY/S (boy and dog or frog), as well as to switch to BOY. In contrast, instructional context differences were significant only for reference to the DOG or FROG. The finding that second graders in both dual language immersion and English-only programs continued to demonstrate an overreliance on pronominal forms to switch reference in a second language suggests that differences in literacy and oral language development may extend beyond the grades that we investigated. It is therefore important to continue investigating the referencing behaviors of emergent bilingual children throughout the elementary years of schooling.

Classroom to casa: supporting students who are emerging bilinguals

A substantial achievement gap, with culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students falling behind native-English-speaking White peers, has been widely documented in research as well as government reports. However, a corresponding discipline gap has not been evident due to the various labels and methods used for identifying specifically English learners (ELs) or Emergent bilingual (EB) students, variation in their proficiency levels of English, and the difficulty in determining who may or may not have a disability. Considerable work remains on how to raise the overall academic and behavior outcomes of EB students. This paper outlines best practices in a multi-tiered system of support and promotes an asset-based approach, which provides the foundation for educators to create equitable education opportunities.

Inclusive Practices in Special Education: Language and Literacies

With a growing population of emergent bilingual learners in the United States, we are seeing more emergent bilinguals qualifying for special education services. Special education teachers must be prepared to meet the linguistic needs of their students in addition to disability related needs. One way of doing so involves adopting Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy to sustain students’ varied linguistic practices in the classroom. The present article outlines five considerations that may help special educators, including monolingual educators, invite students to draw upon their full linguistic repertoires. Considerations include: providing opportunities for students to use their multiple languages in the classroom, making explicit connections across languages, thinking expansively about literacy, modeling the use of multiple languages and literacies, and being critical of texts used in practice.

Communication Strategies among Indonesian Emergent Bilinguals in Mainstream EFL Classroom

This study aims to enrich the already large body of research on communication strategies which is still, to the best of my knowledge, lacking in rich description about the use of CSs among emergent bilinguals. This qualitative study provides an insight to language practitioners that CSs among emergent bilinguals develop in accordance with their age. Some minor findings also suggest that CSs is influenced more by cognitive development and willingness to communicate (WTC).

“I don’t like English because it is jard.” Exploring multimodal writing and translanguaging practices for biliteracy in a dual language classroom

ABSTRACT This qualitative case study explores how integrating multimodal writing opportunities in a second-grade dual language classroom opens up spaces for translanguaging practices in order to promote a more equitable and socially just access to biliteracy development for emergent bilinguals. A multimodal writing project that integrated writing and social studies was designed to provide students with opportunities to write in English and Spanish using digital tools. Data collected involved field notes, student work, students’ interviews, and videorecordings of students’ interaction while completing the writing tasks. Findings illustrate how the multimodal writing project afforded emergent bilinguals with opportunities to leverage their full linguistic repertoire to construct meaningful texts in both languages while integrating new features in both languages, establishing cross-linguistic connections, building metalinguistic awareness, and positioning as capable writers in both languages.

Fostering greater equity for emergent bilinguals through dual language programming

Fostering greater equity for emergent bilinguals through dual language programming

Am I bilingual? Reporting on the self-reflections of Japanese EFL learners

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Through use of a written questionnaire, this article examines the personal opinions of tertiary-level Japanese intermediate EFL students regarding the definition and process of becoming bilingual. Design/methodology/approach: This article takes a critical applied linguistic approach to examining the perspectives of emergent bilingual Japanese EFL learners regarding their own status as bilingual speakers in Japan. Data and analysis: This study employed a questionnaire involving both Likert and open perspective questions. The subsequent data analysis involved quantitative analysis of the Likert questions and qualitative analysis of the open-ended questions, according to emerging themes. Findings/conclusions: The results suggest that most of the Japanese emergent bilingual participants did not view themselves as being bilingual, and instead considered the notion of bilingualism to be an out-of-reach goal at their current level. This article suggests the need to educate foreign language (FL) learners of their emergent bilingual status so they may dismiss the idea of attaining native-like competence and embrace their status as competent emergent bilinguals. Originality: Whereas many studies examine (emergent) bilingualism from the perspective of minorities learning a majority language, this article has expanded upon the current body of bilingualism literature by investigating the perspectives of bilingualism from speakers of a majority language learning a minority language, as is the case in all FL education environments. Significance/implications: This article provides an insight into the issue of FL learners’ lack of recognition of their own emergent bilingualism. It brings attention to the need for FL teachers to inform students of their emergent bilingual status to leverage their bilingual languaging strategies so that they can make meaning, express themselves, and learn in their ever-increasing bilingual worlds.

Emergent bilingual high school students' social and emotional experiences

AbstractHigh school students labeled as English learners, referred to in this article as emergent bilinguals, participated in a mixed‐methods study of their social and emotional well‐being. Relationships with school personnel, peer relations, and involvement in support activities were connected to well‐being while experiences of microaggressions from teachers and peers, lack of access to advanced curricula, and poor integration with mainstream peers were related to negative well‐being. A variety of school, peer, and family themes both promoted and compromised well‐being. Students' sense of connection to mainstream students was positively related to school belonging and positive affect. A sense of connection to ethnic peers and a positive ethnic identity were related to positive affect but not school belonging. This pattern of findings suggests that connecting with members of both one's ethnic and the mainstream community may lead to greater well‐being but integrating into the mainstream community prompts greater school belonging. Implications for practice and policy are discussed.

Sharing Power in Read‐Alouds with Emergent Bilingual Students

AbstractThis article addresses a growing call for the use of more culturally relevant texts and pedagogy in classrooms. We present how a teacher sharing power with emergent bilingual (EB) students during read‐aloud discussions with culturally relevant texts supports EB students’ literacy opportunities. These opportunities include (1) initiating new topics in the discussions, (2) providing cognitive or linguistic supports for one another, (3) using multilingual abilities to identify vocabulary, and (4) using cultural knowledge to make spontaneous inferences. For each of these four opportunities, we discuss (a) how power is shared by the teacher with her EB students, (b) how sharing power opens learning opportunities for others, (c) how the culturally relevant text supports the learning opportunities, and (d) how students are positioned in the discussion. Finally, we present how teachers can share power, and choose culturally relevant texts that will facilitate these learning opportunities, in their own classrooms.

Scaffolding Multimodal Composition With Emergent Bilingual Students

Digital multimodal composition offers opportunities for emergent bilingual (EB) students to orchestrate semiotic resources in ways that develop their identities, strengthen their understandings of language, and help them to engage with content. To better understand how EBs can participate in varied multimodal composing practices, this study systematically reviews the literature on EBs’ digital multimodal composing in secondary classrooms. More specifically, it examines types of scaffolds, or planned and responsive instructional supports, used by teachers and students, as well as functions for learning associated with these scaffolds. Through an inductive approach, the authors analyzed 74 studies situated in classrooms. Findings showed seven types of scaffolding: collaboration, direct instruction, exemplar texts, translanguaging, discussion, encouragement, and questioning. In addition, eight scaffolding functions emerged that illustrate three major themes of scaffolding identities, scaffolding resources, and scaffolding contexts. The authors then discuss implications for classroom practice, implications for translanguaging and social semiotics theories, and directions for future research.

Picturing dual language and gentrification: an analysis of visual media and their connection to language policy

Dual language (DL) programs propose to be vehicles of social justice and transformation by valuing an additional language other than the dominant one in a society and thereby contesting language hierarchies and the subordination of those who speak/use a non-dominant language (Flores, Flores, Educational Policy 30:13–38, 2016; Menken and García, Menken, K., & García, O. (2021). Constructing translanguaging school policies and practices. In: CUNY-New York State Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals (Eds.) Translanguaging and transformative teaching for emergent bilingual students. Project. Routledge, New York.). However, Palmer (Henderson, K. I., & Palmer, D. K. (2020). Dual Language Bilingual Education: Teacher Cases and Perspectives on Large-scale Implementation. Multilingual Matters.: 11) warned that DL programs risk becoming “enrichment foreign-language immersion to middle- and upper-class White children” and hence “lost opportunit[ies] for transformation.” This “gentrification” of DL efforts is enabled by racial, economic, and linguistic hierarchies of power (Valdez, Freire, and Delavan, Valdez et al., The Urban Review 48:601–627, 2016). Our analysis of five images from a corpus of 34 online news articles considers how photographic depictions of DL programs can manifest gentrification in non-linguistic ways that nonetheless reinforce moves away from DL for social transformation and toward DL as hegemonic. This paper clarifies how multimodal critical discourse analysis (MCDA) and Habermasian notions of the public sphere critically complement how public spaces (in this case schools) get imbued with “specific values that mediate inhabitants’ interpretations of themselves and their relation to others in a space” (Hult, Hult, Tollefson and Pérez-Milans (eds), The Oxford handbook of language policy and planning, Oxford University Press, 2018: 338). Findings reveal nuanced ways in which world language populations are protagonized visually and related ways that heritage/maintenance populations are either erased or marginalized. This helps explain the key assertion—that visual images can reinforce DL program gentrification—but also augments the theoretical toolkit available to study how progressive intentions of DL can become co-opted.