Emergency Management Organizations Research Articles

Frontline Professionals in the Wake of Social Media Scrutiny: Examining the Processes of Obscured Accountability

Professional accountability is considered important to the legitimacy and survival of a profession. Prior research has examined the role of top-down scrutiny by audiences, such as supervisors, regulators, and certification agencies, in improving professional accountability. But the advent of social media platforms has increasingly enabled the bottom-up scrutiny of professionals—especially professionals on the front line—by audiences such as customers and the public. In this research, I examine how and when bottom-up scrutiny through social media (hereafter, social media scrutiny) impacts the accountability of frontline professionals. Conducting an ethnography of 911 emergency management organizations, I find that social media scrutiny of 911 call-takers—the frontline professionals in this setting—can obscure rather than improve professional accountability. I elaborate on how, why, and under what conditions social media scrutiny pushes frontline professionals to deviate from their mandate, which, in turn, obscures their sense of professional accountability. These processes also generate spillover effects on the everyday work and mandate of downstream professionals (e.g., 911 dispatchers, police officers), producing a cascading set of unintended consequences that further obscures accountability for multiple actors across the professional ecosystem.

Surveying mental health stressors of emergency management professionals: Factors in recruiting and retaining emergency managers in an era of disasters and pandemics.

Emergency managers are responsible for managing crises and disasters, and while their work is essential, it can be stressful and impact their mental health, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to examine the mental health of professional emergency managers and factors associated with their intent to leave the field before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 903 respondents completed an online survey assessing their secondary traumatic stress, emergency reaction strategies, organizational culture, age, length of time in primary position, the highest level of education as well as other metrics. The Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS) was used to determine scores of secondary traumatic stress symptoms, and the Emergency Reaction Questionnaire (ERQ) index was used to evaluate levels of predominant personality types and its tendency towards "fight or flight" reactions in emergency situations. Results revealed significant differences among respondents who reported considering leaving the field before or during the COVID-19 pandemic in terms of secondary traumatic stress scores, ERQ levels, perceived organizational culture (OC), age category, length of time in primary position, and the highest level of education (p < 0.05). Logistic regression analysis indicated that respondents with higher secondary traumatic stress scores, poorer organizational culture, younger age, less experience, and a bachelor's degree had nearly three times the odds of reporting considering leaving the field (p < 0.05). Additionally, respondents with a graduate degree had nearly four times the odds of reporting leaving the field (p < 0.05), while those who had directly managed between three and five disasters had nearly two times the odds of reporting and considering leaving the field (p < 0.05). These findings underscore the importance of addressing secondary traumatic stress, promoting positive organizational culture, and providing support for emergency managers now and in the future. By addressing the factors identified in this study, such as secondary traumatic stress symptoms, promoting positive organizational culture, and providing adequate support, emergency management organizations can improve the mental health and well-being of their personnel, reduce attrition rates, and ensure that they are better equipped to respond to future crises.

The interplay of logics and social media: An organisational field perspective

AbstractThis paper examines what happens when multiple organisations with competing logics enact social media concurrently and in diverse ways. This is important in organisational fields such as emergency management where it becomes problematic if information provision is fragmented and inconsistent. A qualitative and multi‐level case study of an organisational field is undertaken, comprised of interviews with 45 representatives from 27 organisations, including emergency management organisations, government agencies, non‐government organisations, private organisations, and community groups. Based on our findings, we build understanding of how logics and the enactment of digital technology coevolve in an organisational field. We articulate a theoretical model that explains the reciprocity between logics and the enactment of social media. We also develop a framework that captures an organisational field‐level perspective on the range of ways that information flows across such a field. We contribute to theory on institutional dynamics and to understanding of the enactment of social media in organisational fields. Implications for practice are discussed.

Input-Process-Output of decision-making framework during bushfire

Australia has been grappling with recurring bushfires for over a century, significantly affecting the landscape and communities. Despite this, there has been an increase in residents moving into high-risk bushfire areas. This study aimed to develop a framework that could guide householder decision-making regarding self-evacuation during bushfires by identifying the incentives that encourage early evacuation. The study used a qualitative approach and 30 semi-structured interviews were conducted with residents in the southeast part of New South Wales; a region hardest hit during the 2019–20 summer bushfire season. Thirteen potential incentives that motivate self-evacuation were identified. The framework provides valuable insights into how incentives could influence residents’ decision-making during bushfires. In addition, it serves as a useful reference for policymakers, fire services and emergency management organisations when creating effective ways to encourage early self-evacuation and, ultimately, reduce injury and fatality.

Stressors and Mental Health Survey of Emergency Management Professionals

Emergency Managers (EMs) have a unique set of mental health stressors compared to other professions. Early 2019 anecdotal information from the field combined with data from a Journal of Emergency Management (JEM) Higher Ed Survey conducted in 2017 suggested an accelerating rate of Emergency Managers leaving the field for other professions or leaving the field completely. Additional communication from practitioners in the field, before and during the pandemic, suggested that these unique stressors on EMs were compounding the exodus from the field.&#x0D; Trained seasoned EMs do not emerge from higher ed but are the product of years of higher education and experiential knowledge. The current rate of departure portents a shortage of trained EMs in the near future.&#x0D; The JEM Stressors and Mental Health Survey (SMHS) was designed to quantify the mental health of emergency managers using the validated Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS). The Emergency Response Questionnaire (ERQ), a validated survey, is used to confirm personality type of the respondent. Organizational type, education, and many other factors are assessed to determine their effect on the EM’s mental health, their ability to function efficiently and effectively, and their propensity to leave the field.&#x0D; The data collected will be used to establish baselines and support analysis and research on how we can better lead, support, recruit, retain, and grow as emergency management professionals and organizations capable of meeting the increasing demands of tomorrow.

Seismic risk assessment and hotspots prioritization: a developing country perspective.

Natural disasters pose a negative impact not only on human lives but also on infrastructures such as healthcare systems, supply chains, logistics, manufacturing, and service industries. The frequency of such calamities has grown over time, which not only poses a threat to human survival and the living environment but is also detrimental to the economic growth and sustainable development of society. Earthquakes cause the most destruction compared to other natural disasters, especially in developing countries where the conventional reactive approach to dealing with disasters gives less chance for the appropriate utilization of already limited resources. Additionally, mismanagement of the resources and the lack of a unified action plan hinder the purpose of helping the grieving population. Considering the foregoing, this study presents a methodology for identifying hotspots and helping prioritize pre- and post-disaster management action by conducting a thorough seismic risk assessment while taking into consideration the case of a developing country as its focus. This methodology allows for rapid risk assessment against any given scenario by providing quantitative estimates of the repercussions such as physical damage to the buildings, casualties including injuries, economic losses, displaced households, debris, shelter requirements, and hospital functionality. In short, it could help prioritize actions with greater impacts and serve as a foundation for the formulation of policies and plans intended to increase the resilience of a resource-constrained community. Thus, the findings can be utilized by government agencies, emergency management organizations, non-government organizations, and aiding countries as a decision support tool.

Social work disaster practice

INTRODUCTION: Natural and human-made disasters, including climate change, pandemics, and other hazards such as earthquake and flooding can have considerable negative impact on all communities in Aotearoa New Zealand. This article uses a case study approach to describe the experiences and reflections of social workers in relation to disaster practice. METHODS: This phase of the research project included semi-structured interviews with 11 registered social workers who had been involved in disaster management in Aotearoa New Zealand. The case studies were examined using thematic analysis to identify key themes. This article draws on four of the 11 interviews grouped together after thematic analysis, enabling detailed exploration of experiences. FINDINGS: Analysis of the interviews identified that the transferable skills and knowledge of social workers are important for disaster practice; social workers are effective in connecting with individuals and communities; and improved professional relationships, systems, and processes are required so that the community is better supported following future disaster events. IMPLICATIONS: Social workers practise locally but are situated within an international context that is underpinned by global definitions, agendas, and goals. These, and local codes and standards, offer a rationale and framework for effective social work disaster practice. Stronger connection between the social work profession and the national emergency management organisation in Aotearoa New Zealand will build social capital and signal the profession’s commitment to community resilience in the context of disaster practice.

An Exploration of Local Emergency Management Program Accreditation Pursuit

Abstract The manuscript reports the results of a study that explored what facilitates and hinders local emergency management program pursuit of accreditation by the Emergency Management Accreditation Program (EMAP). This research question is of significance for several reasons, including, (1) leading national emergency management organizations have endorsed The Emergency Management Standard promulgated by EMAP; (2) very few programs are accredited; and, (3) there are only two studies related to accreditation in emergency management and neither examines accreditation in a local context. Analysis of semi-structured interview data from local emergency management program leaders representing some of the largest municipalities in the United States revealed a variety of key themes regarding what facilitates or hinders accreditation pursuit. The complexity of these themes and the context which produces them suggests that widespread accreditation at the local level is not likely in the near future even though many leaders valued the Standard and accreditation. This conclusion is discussed and a variety of avenues that might be pursued if more accreditation of local programs were the goal is offered.

Knowledge to action: Resilience planning among state and local transportation agencies in the United States.

The results of a nationwide survey of state and local agencies conducted in 2020 are summarized to understand priorities for improving transportation emergency management (EM) and resilience. Questions on EM activities, policies, and operations were answered by 190 respondents from across the country. In addition to comparing responses across transportation, EM, and other organizations (law enforcement, public works, health, environmental services, etc.), differences are analyzed based on agency size, location, experience, and hazard exposure. Respondents were also asked to prioritize EM activities for additional funding. Capabilities such as Emergency Planning, Traffic Control, Response Teams, and Situational Awareness emerge as priority areas. Approximately 60 percent of transportation agencies report updates of EM plans within the last 5 years compared to 70 percent of EM and 38 percent among other agencies. Four general linear models (GLMs) are developed and tested to determine the attributes of respondents who support improvements in (1) planning, (2) communications, (3) collaboration, and (4) transformation of agencies. An evaluative framework for measuring and managing resilience is developed and tested based on the responses. The analysis reveals diverse EM experiences, capabilities, and priorities, providing insight into future directions for sustaining and improving transportation resilience.

Mapping and the future of caring for the past: Using GIS as a tool to understand the risk of emergencies to cultural heritage collections

Natural and human-caused disasters have always been a risk to museums, libraries, archives, and all types of cultural heritage collections. The increase in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events brought about by climate change indicate that risk assessment and emergency preparedness and response will become even more important in caring for these collections in the future. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the art conservation and heritage preservation communities in the United States have worked to develop tools and networks for organizations preparing for and responding to collections emergencies. Some of these initiatives, including an interactive map called Active Weather Risks for Museums, Libraries, and Archives, have included the integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in mapping cultural heritage assets and identifying location-specific risks. Continued research into the applications for GIS in responsive risk assessment and emergency planning, and the utilization of publicly available hazard data from emergency management organizations and climate scientists, will help prevent catastrophic damage to our nation’s collections.

Moving Up the Ladder in Rising Waters: Community Science in Infrastructure and Hazard Mitigation Planning as a Pathway to Community Control and Flood Disaster Resilience

Public participation is the democratic gateway to more just, inclusive, and resilient communities. However, infrastructure and hazard mitigation planning tends toward top-down, expert-driven processes that fail to meaningfully include communities most at risk of disasters. In this article, we critically examine the potential of citizen science in infrastructure and hazard mitigation planning with a focus on stormwater infrastructure and extreme wet-weather events, as floods are the most common disaster in the US. We review literature on various citizen science approaches, from crowdsourcing to community science, and offer a framework that situates them within Sherry Arnstein’s foundational piece on public participation, a “Ladder of Citizen Participation.” We discuss the opportunities different participatory methods offer for meaningful public involvement, knowledge generation, and ultimately community control and ownership of stormwater and flood infrastructure. We provide case study examples across the US of how public works departments, emergency management, and related organizations have engaged communities around hazard risks and flooding challenges, and offer recommendations for how these programs can be improved. We conclude that in order to produce data needed to mitigate flood disasters and increase trust and public interest in infrastructure needs, civic participation should be grounded in community science, utilizing a multimedia and technological platform. The methods applied and data generated can be leveraged toward public safety, and provide voice, agency, and power particularly to disenfranchised communities most at risk from current hazards and looming climate change impacts.

Flexible emergency management: Operational area adaptation during a pandemic.

The pandemic environment shaped the field of emergency management in 2020, creating a new operational paradigm for Contra Costa County's coordinated emergency response capability. This discussion represents initial steps in the improvement planning process for the County Emergency Operations Center (EOC). It offers one tool supporting organizational growth through a critical discussion of adaptation and flexibility in the EOC. Drawing from local, state, and national data, the discussion frames the local EOC experience in the context of how the pandemic intersected with long-established response frameworks. The discussion considers implications for future response to complex expanding incidents. The County operational area applied the emergency management frameworks of the Incident Command System (ICS) and California's Standardized Emergency Management System (SEMS) in novel ways, developed innovative solutions to meet critical resource needs, and leveraged new partnerships to enhance capabilities in 2020. Through this experience, the County emergency management organization was both singularly challenged and informed by the pandemic, even as it responded to simultaneously occurring incidents. There are takeaways in each of these areas that bear on improvement planning. In particular the review highlights the need to expand beyond traditional ICS roles and frameworks to facilitate a more flexible response. More broadly, this suggests that the field of emergency management grows more dynamic as it responds to more complex concurrent incidents with an ever-widening spectrum of -stakeholders.

A short note on four different emergency management mechanisms in the Chinese government disaster response

AbstractChina's government emergency management has the capacity to stand up an emergency management office, an emergency management headquarters, a joint defence and control command mechanism, and an emergency management joint conference. This short note compares these different mechanisms along several important dimensions. The overall emergency management organization and command system of COVID‐19 is analyzed specifically.

Managing disaster risk associated with critical infrastructure systems: a system-level conceptual framework for research and policy guidance

ABSTRACT This paper presents a new conceptual framework of the disaster risk of critical infrastructure systems in terms of societal impacts. Much research on infrastructure reliability focuses on specific issues related to the technical system or human coping. Focusing on the end goal of infrastructure services – societal functioning – this framework offers a new way to understand how those more focused research areas connect and the current thinking in each. Following an overview of the framework, each component is discussed in turn, including the initial buildout of physical systems; event occurrence; service interruptions; service provider response; user adaptations to preserve or create needed services; and the ending deficit in societal function. Possible uses of the framework include catalysing and guiding a systematic research agenda that could ultimately lead to a computational framework and stimulating discussion on resilience within utility and emergency management organisations and the larger community.

The Role of Disaster Risk Governance for Effective Post-Disaster Risk Management—Case of Croatia

Risk governance is mostly viewed through the lens of disaster or emergency management departments, agencies, or organizations. Visible in times of crises, risk governance is rarely seen as part of everyday public or private functions such as planning, social welfare, investments, or fiscal responsibilities. This paper emphasizes the importance of disaster risk governance in disaster risk management activities on the example of the post-disaster recovery of Croatia after a series of strong seismic events in mainland Croatia. The analysis is made based on a thorough review of national documents of Croatia and other selected countries overlapped with the national journals reporting on the situation from the affected areas. In accordance with the authors’ opinion, the necessary elements of disaster risk governance are clearly stated through the four Sendai framework priorities, and this statement is supported by the facts from the case study. Without either the political will or the enabling surrounding the disaster, risk management is next to impossible. The Croatian case study emphasizes the importance of disaster risk governance, showcasing the adaptation process for the post-disaster recovery process to start.

#StrongTogether? Qualitative Sentiment Analysis of Social Media Reactions to Disaster Volunteering during a Forest Fire in Finland

The transformation of disaster volunteering has been highlighted in academic literature. This study examined that transformation via a big data approach. The context for the study was provided by a forest fire in Finland, which sparked a debate on volunteering. The data (806 social media messages) were analyzed using qualitative sentiment analysis to (1) identify the sentiments relating to a variety of volunteers and (2) understand the context of and tensions behind those sentiments. The data suggested that the prevailing view of disaster volunteering is a rather traditional one, while the observations on the transformation remain largely latent. The positive sentiments reflected a view of the co-production of extinguishing forest fires as an activity of formal governmental and nonprofit emergency management organizations and volunteers from expanding and extending organizations. Unaffiliated volunteers were seen as extra pairs of hands that could be invited to help in an organized way and with limited tasks, only if required. Sentiments with a more negative tone raised concerns about having sufficient numbers of affiliated volunteers in the future and the rhetorical level of appreciation of them. The data revealed a dichotomous relationship between “professionals” and “amateurs” and the politicization of the debate between different actor groups.

Size matters: How safety climate and downstream outcomes vary by fire department organization type

BackgroundSafety climate is an upstream predictor of safety behaviors (e.g., safety compliance), organizational outcomes (e.g., burnout, engagement), and safety outcomes (e.g., injuries). The Fire Service Organizational Culture of Safety (FOCUS) survey, which was psychometrically validated, measures the industry-specific safety climate of the US fire and rescue service. It is expressed by two factors, Management Commitment to Safety and Supervisor Support for Safety.MethodsThe FOCUS beta-test included a random sample of 132 fire departments stratified by Federal Emergency Management Agency region and organization type (career, combination, volunteer). We conducted descriptive analysis with the responses from 8414 firefighters nested within 611 stations in 125 fire departments. We reported descriptive statistics to assess the distribution of all continuous [mean ± standard deviation (SD)] and categorical variables (counts, percentages) stratified by organization type. Regression analyses were conducted to investigate the associations between safety climate, safety behaviors, organizational outcomes, and safety outcomes stratified by organization type.ResultsThe mean age of the analytic sample was 40.2 years, and the mean years of experience was 16.1 years. This sample included 53.6% career, 27.2% combination (career and volunteer), and 19.2% volunteer fire departments. The mean Management Commitment score was 71.4 (SD = ± 10.4), and the mean Supervisor Support score was 81.7 (± 5.2). The mean Management Commitment scores were 67.1 (± 8.4), 72.2 (± 10.7), and 82.1 (± 6.1), respectively, for career, combination, and volunteer fire departments. The mean Supervisor Support scores were not notably different by organization type. Regression analyses generally supported the beneficial role of safety climate, while suggesting organization type as a potential effect modifier. Specifically, we observed a more negative association between Management Commitment as departments became more career.ConclusionsAnalysis of nationally representative data from the US fire and rescue service indicates safety climate is positively associated with safety behavior, organizational outcomes, and safety outcomes reflecting employee well-being. The findings also suggest that this association varies by organization type. In fact, a dose–response relationship was observed, with Management Commitment to safety lowest among career departments. Thus, our results suggest that it is not just being busy that decreases Management Commitment.

Covid Cats and Pandemic Puppies: The Altered Realm of Veterinary Care for Companion Animals during a Global Pandemic

ABSTRACT The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada and the US significantly impacted the myriad relationships that exist amongst human and non-human animals. This article highlights the tolls that the virus and lockdown measures took (and continue to take) on companion animals and the veterinary professionals who care for them. Veterinary medicine scrambled quickly to adapt to new parameters of care using pandemic protocols, radically transforming the amount and quality of care for companion animals, and the work lives of those who provide it. Changes in clinic protocols, patient admissions and discharges, deliveries, shipments, appointment scheduling and duration, and the availability of food, pharmaceuticals and medical equipment all impacted the lives of non-human animals, and the work lives of those providing veterinary care . The authors employed mixed methods research, combining ethnographic data with secondary source data analysis to illuminate the new realities of labor and interspecies care work in the lockdown-induced anthropause. The findings are relevant to veterinary professionals, researchers, companion animal guardians, animal welfare advocates, and possibly emergency management organizations in prepareding for future catastrophic events.

Recognizing and mitigating against COVID-19 consequence management impacts in emergency management organizations.

Disasters should no longer be considered along a linear timeline, where response follows preparedness, recovery follows response, and mitigation follows recovery-even if those disaster cycle phases overlap. The spiral aspects of these disaster cycle phases require communities to be in the response phase at the same time as the recovery and also mitigation phases. Emergency management (EM) organizations should use COVID-19 as the basis for a new normal as to their own continuity of operations and government. Their current model for staffing and supporting incident management is not sustainable for a long-term pandemic. The approach to any EM's organizational response to COVID-19-and the "reset/restart" of any suspended internal actions and activities-should be consistently applied across the board through all missions, all lines of service, etc., and conducted along a standardized project-management approach, with Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Timely (SMART) goals assigned, tracked, and reported in summary and detail by utilizing a stalwart construct from emergency management through planning, organizing, equipping, training, and exercising. The EM organization's role in their community, conducted through their people, products, and services-the tactical objectives and missions which that EM organization performs, will need to continue to adapt, not only for existing missions but also for new ones created by this pandemic as well.

Cultural Safety in Emergency Support Services

Wildfire and flood events of recent years, including this year, have stretched and tested British Columbia’s Emergency Support Services (ESS) system, a provincial program designed by Emergency Management BC (EMBC) to support evacuees. After action reviews from the 2017 and 2018 wildfire and flood seasons, demonstrate ESS approaches fell short of providing fully adequate support to Indigenous communities. Building upon a Master’s thesis which was designed using Indigenous research methodologies and action research engagement principles, I asked the question: “How might emergency management practitioners braid cultural safety and a respect, honouring and celebration of Indigenous traditional knowledge, and community-based practices into ESS training and practices?” This article offers a summary of findings and recommendations for practical application for communities and emergency management organizations across the country. The findings include:&#x0D; Finding 1 was a theme related to the context and the current state of emergency services evacuations in 2020. This included the social and historical contexts, jurisdiction, and roles and responsibilities.&#x0D; Finding 2 focused on the participants’ perspectives of a definition of ‘Cultural Safety,’ which included the identification of specific competencies, a focus on trust-based relationships, and a connection to land.&#x0D; Finding 3 focused on the evacuation and registration process, including keeping families together, the use of community ‘navigators,’ (key individuals with knowledge of community protocol trusted by the community), and suggestions for reception centres in the process of registering evacuees.&#x0D; Finding 4 was about providing appropriate supports and services to evacuate communities, including providing traditional food, appropriate accommodation, transportation, language, culture and cultural protocols, and including pets.&#x0D; Finding 5 encompassed knowledge and training required for ESS professionals engaged in evacuation of communities. This included content for culturally relevant ESS training, which need to be codesigned and led by indigenous cultural navigators, as well as incorporating evaluation and public education.&#x0D; Finding 6 is on the theme of Planning and Preparedness, and includes subtopics of relationships, professional capacity, emergency and evacuation plans, personal preparedness and responder self-care and wellness.