Procedural Sedation In Emergency Department Research Articles

Door to relocation time for dislocated hip prosthesis: multicentre comparison of emergency department procedural sedation versus theatre-based general anaesthesia

Background:Dislocation of a hip prosthesis is a painful event which has an incidence of 4% for primary total hip arthroplasty. Relocation is traditionally performed under general anaesthesia in the operating...

Consensus-Based Recommendations for Standardizing Terminology and Reporting Adverse Events for Emergency Department Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in Children

Children commonly require sedation and analgesia for procedures in the emergency department. Establishing accurate adverse event and complications rates from the available literature has been difficult because of the difficulty in aggregating results from previous studies that have used varied terminology to describe the same adverse events and outcomes. Further, serious adverse events occur infrequently, necessitating the study of large numbers of children to assess safety. These limitations prevent the establishment of a sufficiently large database on which evidence-based practice guidelines may be based. We assembled a panel of pediatric sedation researchers and experts to develop consensus-based recommendations for standardizing procedural sedation and analgesia terminology and reporting of adverse events. Our goal was to create a uniform reporting mechanism for future studies to facilitate the aggregation and comparison of results.

Limited analgesic efficacy of nitrous oxide for painful procedures in children

Study objective:Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an attractive agent for procedural analgesia and sedation of children in the emergency department (ED). Despite increasing use, efficacy data for painful procedures are limited....

Subdissociative‐dose Ketamine versus Fentanyl for Analgesia during Propofol Procedural Sedation: A Randomized Clinical Trial

The authors sought to compare the safety and efficacy of subdissociative-dose ketamine versus fentanyl as adjunct analgesics for emergency department (ED) procedural sedation and analgesia (PSA) with propofol. This double-blind, randomized trial enrolled American Society of Anesthesiology (ASA) Class I or II ED patients, aged 14-65 years, requiring PSA for orthopedic reduction or abscess drainage. Subjects received 0.3 mg/kg ketamine or 1.5 mug/kg fentanyl intravenously (IV), followed by IV propofol titrated to deep sedation. Supplemental oxygen was not routinely administered. The primary outcomes were the frequency and severity of cardiorespiratory events and interventions, rated using a composite intrasedation event rating scale. Secondary outcomes included the frequency of specific scale component events, propofol doses required to achieve and maintain sedation, times to sedation and recovery, and physician and patient satisfaction. Sixty-three patients were enrolled. Of patients who received fentanyl, 26/31 (83.9%) had an intrasedation event versus 15/32 (46.9%) of those who received ketamine. Events prospectively rated as moderate or severe were seen in 16/31 (51.6%) of fentanyl subjects versus 7/32 (21.9%) of ketamine subjects. Patients receiving fentanyl had 5.1 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.9 to 13.6; p < 0.001) times the odds of having a more serious intrasedation event rating than patients receiving ketamine. There were no significant differences in secondary outcomes, apart from higher propofol doses in the ketamine arm. Subdissociative-dose ketamine is safer than fentanyl for ED PSA with propofol and appears to have similar efficacy.

Oxycodone Versus Codeine for Triage Pain in Children With Suspected Forearm Fracture

To compare the efficacy of pain reduction of triage oxycodone (O) versus codeine (C) to children with suspected forearm fractures. Children, aged 4 to 17 years, were randomized to receive O (0.2 mg/kg; maximum, 15 mg) or C (2 mg/kg; maximum, 120 mg) if isolated forearm fracture was suspected by the emergency department (ED) triage nurse. All other ED staff were blinded to the assignment. The primary outcome measure was a 5-point facial scale (0 = no pain, 4 = severe) completed by subjects to assess pain at baseline then at 30-minute intervals until ED discharge or procedural sedation for fractures requiring reduction. Ten adverse effects were assessed at baseline and the succeeding intervals. Identification of the most painful part of the visit was assessed at discharge. Efficacy and adverse effects of O versus C were compared using generalized estimate equation modeling. One hundred seven subjects (mean age, 10.4 years; African American, 55%; males, 56%) were randomized to O (n = 51) or C (n= 56). Subjects taking O reported a pain score significantly lower than subjects taking C (0.4 faces, P = 0.01). Minor adverse effects occurred in both groups, but itching occurred less in O subjects (odds ratio, 0.37; 95% confidence interval, 0.14-0.99). The most painful part of the visit was radiography (O = 41%, C = 38%) followed by extremity examination (O = 16%, C = 13%) then casting (O = 8%, C = 13%). Triage-administered O tended toward greater pain reduction compared with C in children with suspected forearm fractures. Although minor adverse effects occurred in both groups, itching occurred more in C. Identification of radiography as the most painful part of fracture evaluation underscores the need for early triage administration of analgesia for suspected fractures.

The Utility of Supplemental Oxygen During Emergency Department Procedural Sedation With Propofol: A Randomized, Controlled Trial

We determine whether supplemental oxygen reduces the incidence of hypoxia by 20% compared with breathing room air in adult study patients receiving propofol for emergency department procedural sedation. Patients were randomized to receive either supplemental oxygen or compressed air by nasal cannula at 3 L per minute. Physicians were blinded to the gas used and end tidal CO(2) (etco(2)) data. Respiratory depression was defined a priori as oxygen saturation less than or equal to 93%, an etco(2) level of greater than or equal to 50 mm Hg, an absolute etco(2) change from baseline of greater than or equal to 10 mm Hg, or loss of the etco(2) waveform. Of the 110 patients analyzed, 56 received supplemental oxygen and 54 received room air. Ten (18%) patients in the supplemental oxygen group and 15 (28%) patients in the compressed air group experienced hypoxia (P=.3, effect size=10%, 95% confidence interval -24% to 7%). Twenty-seven patients (20 supplemental oxygen; 7 room air) met etco(2) criteria for respiratory depression but did not become hypoxic. Physicians identified respiratory depression in 23 of 25 patients who developed hypoxia compared with only 1 of 27 patients who met etco(2) criteria for respiratory depression but who did not have hypoxia. One patient in the supplemental oxygen group experienced a transient arrhythmia and had a short apneic episode, both of which resolved spontaneously. The patient was admitted for observation. Supplemental oxygen (3 L/minute) trended toward reducing hypoxia in adult study patients; however, the 10% difference observed was not statistically significant and was below our a priori 20% threshold. Blinded capnography frequently identified respiratory depression undetected by the treating physicians.

Propofol for ED Procedural Sedation — How Good Is It?

Propofol, an ultra–short-acting sedation agent that might cause hypotension and transient apnea, is becoming increasingly popular for procedural sedation. Canadian researchers prospectively evaluated efficacy, safety, and patient satisfaction in 113 patients (mean age, 50; 62% male) who received propofol for procedural sedation in the emergency department during a 2-year period. The procedures included orthopedic reductions (44%), cardioversion (37%), and abscess incision and drainage …

When can cardiorespiratory observations cease after emergency department procedural sedation with titrated IV propofol

Procedural sedation for orthopaedic and surgical procedures is performed frequently in the emergency department (ED). Studies have indicated that there is often resistance to the implementation of procedural sedation policies from medical and nursing staff, who fear that the ED will become blocked with patients requiring one-on-one nursing for protracted periods during their recovery from procedural sedation.

388: Can Emergency Physicians Recognize Respiratory Depression in Patients Who Do Not Become Hypoxic During ED Procedural Sedation and Analgesia?

388: Can Emergency Physicians Recognize Respiratory Depression in Patients Who Do Not Become Hypoxic During ED Procedural Sedation and Analgesia?

“Poachers and Dabblers?”: ASA President’s Incautious Comment Riles Emergency Physicians

“Poachers and Dabblers?”: ASA President’s Incautious Comment Riles Emergency Physicians

Profiling adverse respiratory events and vomiting when using propofol for emergency department procedural sedation

To evaluate the rate of adverse respiratory events and vomiting among ED patients undergoing procedural sedation with propofol. This was a prospective, observational series of patients undergoing procedural sedation. Titrated i.v. propofol was administered via protocol. Fasting status was recorded. Four hundred patients undergoing sedation were enrolled. Of these 282 (70%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 66-75%) had eaten or drunken within 6 and 2 h, respectively. Median fasting times from a full meal, snack or drink were 7 h (interquartile range [IQR] 5-9 h), 6 h (IQR 4-8 h) and 4 h (IQR 2-6 h), respectively. Overall a respiratory event occurred in 86 patients (22%, 95% CI 18-26%). An airway intervention occurred in 123 patients (31%, 95% CI 26-35%). In 111 cases (90%, 95% CI 60-98%) basic airway manoeuvres were all that was required. No patients were intubated. Two patients vomited (0.5%, 95% CI 0.0-1.6%), one during sedation, one after patient became conversational. One patient developed transient laryngospasm (0.25%, 95% CI 0-1.2%) unrelated to vomiting. There were nil aspiration events (0%, 95% CI 0-0.74%). Seventy per cent of patients undergoing ED procedural sedation are not fasted. No patient had a clinically evident adverse outcome. Transient respiratory events occur but can be managed with basic airway interventions making propofol a safe alternative for emergency physicians to provide emergent procedural sedation.

Sedation in the emergency department

The recent year's literature is reviewed concerning the use of sedation in the emergency department. The use of moderate to deep sedation is becoming common in emergency medicine for many reasons, including progressive hospital crowding, limited availability of anesthesia, and increased training in residency. This is performed for a wide variety of procedures, most commonly orthopedic. The literature discussed medications, monitoring, and the safety of current sedation practice in the emergency department. Emergency department procedural sedation and analgesia is performed with a number of medications, including propofol, etomidate, midazolam, fentanyl, ketamine, and nitrous oxide. Cardiac monitoring, pulse oximetry and capnography are used, often without strong evidence-based support of need. Complications do occur and are higher in prospective studies than in retrospective series. This suggests a degree of underreporting. Nevertheless, clinically important complications are uncommon. The year's literature reflects the reality that the performance of sedation in the emergency department is advantageous. As the era of evidence-based medicine continues to provide us with more and better information, the combined efforts of both anesthesiology and emergency medicine can hopefully contribute to improving patient safety with respect to procedural sedation.

Emergency Department Procedural Sedation with Propofol: Is it Safe?

Propofol is a sedative agent gaining popularity for Emergency Department Procedural Sedation (EDPS). However, some institutions across the country continue to restrict the use of propofol secondary to safety concerns. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the complication rate of EDPS with propofol. We conducted a prospective, observational, multi-center study of EDPS patients aged ≥ 18 years, consenting to procedural sedation with propofol. Eighty-two patients from two Level I trauma centers were enrolled between August 1, 2002 and January 31, 2003. Transient hypoxemia was the only noted sedation complication. Nine patients (11%) had brief hypoxemia. The combined average hypoxemia time was 1.2 min (SD 0.4), and in all instances responded to simple airway maneuvers or increased oxygen concentration. No patient required advanced airway maneuvers such as intubation or even positive pressure ventilation. EDPS with propofol seems to be safe in our population.

The Utility of Supplemental Oxygen during Emergency Department Procedural Sedation and Analgesia with Propofol: A Randomized, Controlled, Trial

The Utility of Supplemental Oxygen during Emergency Department Procedural Sedation and Analgesia with Propofol: A Randomized, Controlled, Trial

Recall after procedural sedation in the emergency department

Background: Procedural sedation (PS) is common in the emergency department (ED) and ideally patients should have no recall of the procedure. Aim: To determine the incidence of recall. Methods: A...

Pediatric Procedural Sedation in the Community Emergency Department

Emergency department procedural sedation practices for children have been reported for pediatric tertiary care centers. This report describes these same practice patterns and outcomes for community hospital-based general emergency physicians (EPs) in their treatment of pediatric patients. The Procedural Sedation in the Community Emergency Department registry is a prospective observational database composed of consecutive EP-directed procedural sedation cases in community hospitals. Information on sedation cases is collected at the time of the patient encounter and entered into an Internet-accessed database. A total of 1028 procedural sedations were performed on 977 patients at 14 study sites, with 341 procedures performed in 339 patients younger than 21 years. The most common specified pediatric procedures performed included laceration repairs (n = 86, 25%), shoulder relocations (n = 78, 23%), and fracture care of the upper extremity (n = 56, 16%). Medications used included ketamine (n = 141, 41%), midazolam (n = 10, 32%), etomidate (n = 54, 16%), fentanyl (n = 51, 15%), and propofol (n = 47, 14%). Complications were reported in 2 cases (0.6%), 1 episode of apnea requiring a reversal agent and 1 episode of hypoxia responsive to supplemental oxygen. Of procedures attempted, 339 (99.4%) were successfully completed. Emergency physicians both directed the sedation and performed the procedure in 252 cases (74%), whereas in another 69 cases (20%), they directed the sedation for another physician performing the procedure. In 20 cases (5.8%), the EP directed sedation for a painless diagnostic study. Community EPs in the Procedural Sedation in the Community Emergency Department registry deliver safe and effective pediatric sedation using a broad selection of agents.

Clinical Practice Advisory: Emergency Department Procedural Sedation With Propofol

We present an evidence-based clinical practice advisory for the administration of propofol for emergency department procedural sedation. We critically discuss indications, contraindications, personnel and monitoring requirements, dosing, coadministered medications, and patient recovery from propofol. Future research questions are considered.

The Effect of the Assignment of a Pre-Sedation Target Level on Procedural Sedation Using Propofol

The goal of this study was to determine if there is a difference in the achieved depth of sedation, the rate of respiratory depression, procedural difficulty, or patient perceived pain or recall between patients randomized to a pre-procedural target sedation level of moderate or deep procedural sedation using propofol during the reduction of fractures and dislocations in the Emergency Department (ED). This was a randomized, prospective study of adults undergoing procedural sedation (PS) with propofol for fracture or dislocation reduction in the ED between July 2003 and March 2004. Patients were randomized to a target sedation level of moderate or deep, using American Society of Anesthesiologists’ definitions. Doses, vital signs, nasal end tidal CO 2 (ETCO 2), pulse oximetry, and bispectral EEG analysis (BIS) scores were recorded. Respiratory depression was defined as a change in ETCO 2 >10, an oxygen saturation of <90% at any time, or an absent ETCO 2 waveform at any time. After the procedure, patients were asked if they perceived any pain or had any recall of the procedure. Physicians were asked to rate the difficulty of completing the reduction using a 100-mm visual analog scale (VAS). Respiratory depression rates were compared with chi-square tests, BIS and VAS scores were compared with t tests. Seventy-five patients were enrolled, 39 randomized to the target of moderate PS and 36 to the target of deep PS. No significant complications were noted. There were 25/36 (69%) of the patients assigned to the deep sedation target group who actually achieved a deep level of sedation and 21/39 (54%) of the patients assigned to the moderate sedation target group who actually achieved a moderate level of sedation ( p = 0.40). Respiratory depression was seen in 19/39 (49%) patients with the moderate PS target and 18/36 (50%) with the deep PS target ( p = 0.91). The mean minimum recorded BIS score was 67.7 (95% confidence interval [CI] 62.2–73.3) for the moderate PS target group and 59.2 (95% CI 55.1–64.2) for the deep PS target group ( p = 0.03). There were 12/39 (31%) in the moderate PS target group and 4/36 (11%) in the deep PS target group who reported pain with or recall of the procedure ( p = 0.04). The mean physician VAS for procedural difficulty was 34.0 (95% CI 23.7–44.3) for the moderate PS group and 28.8 (95% CI 18.4–39.2) for the deep PS group ( p = 0.46). In this study, the assignment of a pre-procedural target sedation level of moderate or deep PS did not influence the level of sedation achieved, the rate of respiratory depression, the occurrence of complications, the time to return of baseline mental status, or the success of the procedure. It does not seem that the assignment of a pre-procedural target sedation level is an effective means of changing the outcome of ED PS.

Capnography for Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department

Although it is standard of care for patient safety monitoring in anesthesia, capnography is not routinely used for emergency department procedural sedation and analgesia. We discuss the use of capnography as a diagnostic monitoring modality for procedural sedation and analgesia, focusing on the physiology and interpretation of the CO2 waveform and recognition of normal, abnormal, and drug-induced ventilatory patterns.

Evaluation of two sedation techniques in a casualty department

We compare the efficacy, adverse events, and recovery duration of etomidate and propofol for use in procedural sedation in the emergency department (ED). A randomized nonblinded prospective trial of adult patients undergoing procedural sedation for painful procedures in the ED was made. Patients received either propofol or etomidate. Doses, vital signs, nasal end-tidal CO2 (etco2), pulse oximetry, and bispectral electroencephalogram analysis scores were recorded. Subclinical respiratory depression was defined as a change in etco2 greater than 10 mmHg, an oxygen saturation of less than 92% at any time, or an absent etco2 waveform at any time. Clinical events related to respiratory depression, including an increase in supplemental oxygen, the use of a bag-valve-mask apparatus, airway repositioning, or stimulation to induce breathing, were noted. Etomidate and propofol appear equally safe for ED procedural sedation. Etomidate had a lower rate of procedural success and induced myoclonus in 20% of patients (see Table ​Table11). Table 1