Elongation Of Wire Research Articles

Enhancement of Control Stability Using Double Pulleys for Coupled Tendon-Driven Long-Reach Manipulator “Super Dragon”

The exploration and inspection of narrow spaces in nuclear facilities require the use of long-reach manipulators. Coupled tendon-driven manipulators can realize lightweight and slender arms by positioning actuators, such as motors, at the base. Currently, we are developing a coupled tendon-driven super long-reach articulated arm, which we name “Super Dragon.” Super Dragon is a robot arm with a total length of 10 m, a maximum arm diameter of 0.2 m, and 10 joints. In this paper, we focused on the elasticity and elongation of ropes. The joint actuation of Super Dragon utilizes synthetic fiber ropes characterized by their high strength and flexible bending. However, when these ropes are used over long lengths, wire elongation occurs, thus causing the joint angles to exhibit unintended and unstable behavior. Therefore, we focused on a specific posture and employ a double pulley as a mechanical solution to suppress unstable behavior. We introduced stability criteria and performed parametric searches to obtain the appropriate double pulley radii. Subsequently, we identified the position and radius of the introduced double pulley that can be analytically stabilized. By installing a double pulley in the actual machine and conducting experiments, we successfully suppressed the unstable behavior.

Texture evolution and its influence mechanism on properties of single crystal copper and polycrystalline copper during cumulative deformation

The φ16 mm single crystal copper rod was prepared by heated-mold horizontal continuous casting, and the φ16 mm polycrystalline copper rod was prepared by up-casting technology. Both of them were drawn to φ0.2 mm, the conductivity, strength, elongation, and microstructure evolution of single-crystal copper wire and polycrystal copper wire were compared and analyzed. The results show that the plasticity of as-cast single-crystal copper rod is 13.94% higher than that of as-cast polycrystalline copper rod. When drawing to φ0.2 mm, a single crystal copper wire with high strength (506 MPa) and high conductivity (98.01% IACS). At the same deformation amount, the single crystal copper wire obviously deforms more slowly and has a higher plastic deformation capacity; the texture transformation of single crystal copper wire is from soft → hard orientation, selective orientation to discrete distribution, while the weave transformation of polycrystalline copper wire is from soft → hard orientation, then from hard → soft orientation, and finally stabilizes to selective orientation. The microstructural evolution of single-crystal copper wire and polycrystalline copper wire during continuous deformation was observed: dislocation entanglement into dislocation cells by slip → microstrip structure → lamellar organization → twinning organization, single-crystal copper wire appears twinning later, single-crystal copper deformation coordination ability is better than polycrystalline copper. It is found that the increase of dislocation density, the decrease of grain width and the increase of <111> texture are the main factors for the strength improvement of micro-nano pure copper wires.

Improved Mechanical Property and Corrosion and Wear Resistance of High-Voltage Aluminium Wires by Micro-Arc Oxidation Coating

New surface treatments are required to improve the resistance of high-voltage aluminium conductors to corrosion and wear. This paper describes the preparation of ceramic coatings on the surface of aluminium wires by the micro-arc oxidation (MAO) technology. The surface morphology, mechanical and tribological properties, electrical resistivity, wear and corrosion resistance of the MAO-treated aluminium samples are examined and compared not only with the untreated samples but also between the use of different current densities in the MAO process. The MAO treatment can increase the tensile strength of the wire and mitigate the wire elongation at excessive high temperature. In addition, the increased surface hardness and the overlapping micro-porous distribution of the MAO coating improve the resistance of the treated sample to wear and corrosion respectively, protecting the aluminium substrate from the joint effects of wear and corrosion. Furthermore, the MAO coating has little impact on the electrical resistivity of aluminium conductors and can mitigate the resistivity change due to corrosive damage. The MAO technology providing a potential idea for the surface treatment of aluminium conductors is expected to extend the service life and alleviate maintenance needs of aluminium conductors operating in harsh environments.

Eruption Treatment of Impacted Teeth Following Surgical Obstruction Removal

Supernumerary teeth and odontomas are obstacles for spontaneous tooth eruption and may result in impaction. The aim of the study is to present a conservative treatment approach for impacted teeth following surgical obstruction removal by reviewing three treatment modalities: surgery only, which involves the surgical removal of the obstruction and the spontaneous eruption; surgery with immediate traction, which includes surgery combined with immediate active orthodontic brace cementation and traction; and surgery with delayed traction, which combines a surgical procedure of obstacle removal and orthodontic brace cementation with follow-up for the spontaneous eruption. The first two modalities require orthodontic traction either by an additional surgical procedure for orthodontic brace cementation, or combined with the surgical obstacle removal. With the third approach, clinical follow-up is performed via connected ligature wire elongation applied during the surgical procedure for the spontaneous emergence of the impacted tooth. Active orthodontic traction is only employed if the tooth fails to erupt. The visual follow-up via wire elongation serves as a reference during the emergence of the impacted teeth and reduces the need for radiographic examination. The surgical-orthodontic approach saves both further surgery and orthodontics (spontaneous eruption) or further surgery (in failure to erupt).

Effect of drawing and annealing on the microstructure and mechanical properties of 304 austenitic stainless steel wire

Plastic deformation at room temperature, and the proceeding heat treatments, are important processes for optimizing the microstructure and mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steel. The microstructure and mechanical properties of cold-drawn 304 austenitic stainless steel wire were investigated after annealing at 700 °C and 800 °C, with different times (20, 40 and 60 min) and drawing strain (0.4, 1.0 and 1.5). Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) techniques, transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis, differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) and tensile tests were performed in order to study the microstructure evolution and mechanical properties during different annealing processes for the 304 austenitic stainless steel wire. The results showed that the quantity of α′ martensite and dislocations increased with an increase in the strain, which means that, while the ultimate tensile strength of the cold-drawn wires elevated, the elongation reduced. The mechanical properties of stainless steel wires also varied with the evolution of martensite transformation characteristics, density of stacking fault, dislocation and twin, as well as the recrystallization degree under various annealing conditions. The recrystallization temperature of steel wire was mainly determined by the magnitude of the strain, while the martensite reversal temperature was determined by the stacking fault energy and the deformation value. The temperature of recrystallization and martensite reverse in steel wire decreased with the increment of the strain. The balance of tensile strength and elongation of steel wire can be obtained by adopting the proper annealing process combined with cold-drawing deformation. In this paper, we showed that a good combination of strength and elongation in 304 austenitic stainless steel can be obtained with a strain of 1.5 annealed at 800 °C for 20 min.

Mechanical and thermoelectric properties of iridium-ruthenium alloy grown by the micro-pulling-down method

Iridium, ruthenium, and iridium-ruthenium alloy wires were fabricated by the dewetting micro-pulling-down method, a type of unidirectional solidification method. The length of the grown Ir-20Ru reached 47 m. Furthermore, their mechanical and thermoelectric properties were investigated. The as-grown Ir-17.9Ru wire exhibited a tensile strength of approximately 765 MPa and a nominal fracture elongation of 21% at room temperature. After work-hardening by three cycles of winding and rewinding for a bending radius of 10 mm and annealing at 2273 K for 3 h, the tensile strength and fracture elongation of the Ir-Ru wire were 1061 MPa and 25%, respectively. From the electromotive force (EMF) characteristics of platinum obtained by integrating the Seebeck coefficient, the EMF characteristics from room temperature to ~ 2000 K of iridium, ruthenium, and Ir-17.9Ru were investigated. The EMF characteristics for several thermocouples using iridium, ruthenium, or Ir-17.9Ru as one of the pairs were estimated from the combination of the obtained EMF characteristics. Ir/Ir-17.9Ru showed similar EMF characteristics to Ir-40Rh/Ir.

Effect of Temperature on Strain-Induced Hardness of Lead-Free Solder Wire using Nanoindentation Approach

Hardness properties of SAC305 solder wire under tensile test at varied temperature was investigated. Continuous multi-cycle (CMC) nanoindentation technique with ten cycle of indentation for each sample was performed to evaluate the hardness behaviour of SAC305 solder wire at different depth of indentation. As a result, all investigated SAC305 solder wire under constant strain rate of tensile test and at different temperature revealed the occurrence of indentation size effect (ISE). At initial cycle of indentation, SAC305 solder wire at room temperature (25 °C) have higher hardness value compared to the others sample which exposed to the varied temperature during tensile test. Besides, higher temperature causes the higher strain or elongation to the SAC305 solder wire. Applied of strain during the tensile test had generated the pre-dislocation activity in the SAC305 solder wire. Therefore, higher hardness values of SAC305 at room temperature is due to the existence of high dislocation density induced by the applied strain. Nevertheless, the existence of heat at 60, 90, 120 and 180 °C during the tensile test prompt the rearrangement of dislocation and reduce the dislocation activities, thus, allowing higher elongation of solder wire.

Patella fracture fixation with a non-locked anterior plating technique: A biomechanical study.

The purpose of this study was to compare the biomechanical attributes of patella fracture fixation with either anterior plating utilizing two parallel, longitudinal 2.0 mm plates technique versus a cannulated screw tension band technique. Five matched pairs (ten specimens) of fresh frozen cadavers were utilized. A transverse patella fracture (OTA 34C1.1) was fixed using either two 4.0 mm cannulated screw anterior tension band (CATB) or with two 2.0 mm stainless steel non-locking plates along the anterior cortex secured with 2.4 mm cortical screws traversing the fracture site. Specimens underwent 1000 cycles of simulated active knee range of motion before load to failure destructive testing. During cyclic loading there were no failures in the plate fixation group, and 2 out of 5 specimens catastrophically failed in the CATB group (p=0.22). Average fracture displacement at the end of fatigue testing was 0.96 mm in the plate fixation group and 2.72 mm in the CATB group (p=0.18). The specimens that withstood cyclic testing underwent a destructive load. Mean load to failure for the plate fixation specimens was 1286 N, which was not significantly different from the CATB group mean of 1175 N (p=0.48). The mechanism of failure in the plate fixation cohort was uniformly via a secondary vertical patella fracture around the plates in all five specimens. In the CATB group, the mechanism of failure was via wire elongation and backing out of the screws. Patella fixation with anterior plating technique statistically performed equivalent to cannulated screw anterior tension band in ultimate load to failure strength and fatigue endurance under cyclical loading. No failures were observed cyclic simulated active range of motion in the anterior plate group. There was a trend towards improved fatigue endurance in the plate fixation group, however this did not reach statistical significance. We believe plate fixation technique represents a low-profile implant option for treatment of transverse patella fractures, which may allow for early active range of motion, and these data support biomechanical equivalency to standard of care.

Control weld geometric parameters when wet underwater welding

The aquatic environment has a significant impact on the efficiency of heat input to the base metal, significantly reducing the efficiency of the arc. As a result, in wet underwater welding, the penetration of the base metal is reduced compared to welding in the air with the same mode parameters. The purpose of the research was to determine the effectiveness of the influence of the parameters of the process of underwater wet welding with rutile-type flux-cored wire on the geometric parameters of the weld metal – its width and penetration depth of the base metal. In this case, the shape coefficient of the weld was determined - the ratio of width to penetration depth (W/P). It was found that the welding speed, wire feed speed and the amplitude of the welding torch oscillations have a significant impact on the ratio of the width to the penetration depth of the welds. The W/P ratio of welds decreases significantly with increasing welding speed without oscillation of the welding torch. So, when welding with transverse oscillations of the welding torch with an increase in the wire feed speed, it decreased from 7.14 to 3.85. And it linearly increased with increasing amplitude of the torch oscillations. It was found that the oscillation velocity, elongation of the flux-cored wire, and arc voltage have an insignificant effect on the W/P ratio.

Experimental study on corrosion behaviour of galvanized steel wires under stress

ABSTRACT To study the corrosion behavior of galvanized steel wires under stress, the influence of stress level, pH value, Cl- concentration and the coupling effect on the corrosion rate of cable steel wire were discussed through stress corrosion test. The prediction formula of corrosion rate of steel wire was established based on response surface method. The constitutive model of steel wire was also put forward. The results showed that the effects of stress level, pH value and Cl- concentration on corrosion rate were pH > Cl- > σ. The stress corrosion increase the corrosion degree of steel wire by 4 times, the degradation ratio of yield and ultimate strength by 2 times, and the degradation rate of elongation and elastic modulus by 3 times. The relationship between the stress level, corrosion degree and the strength or elongation of steel wire was linear, but that of elastic modulus was nonlinear.

Overhead Transmission Line Sag Estimation Using the Simple Opto-Mechanical System with Fiber Bragg Gratings-Part 2: Interrogation System.

This article presents the use of a sensor with fiber Bragg grating along with an interrogation system used for monitoring the overhead lines’ wire elongation. The possible interrogation methods based on adjusted filters were considered. In the experimental part, three types of fiber Bragg grating pairs, characterized by a small shift in spectra in pairs and gratings with exact matching, were examined. The study showed that, by choosing the appropriate mechanical parameters of the elongation transformer with the optical parameters of the sensor and dedicated filter, the optomechanical system can be adjusted to the required range of overhead line wire sag observation. The range of sag depends on the distance between the poles, the wire type, and its real length in the span, which effectively determines the sag.

Achievement of Automatic Copper Wire Elongation System

Copper wire is a major conduction material that carries a variety of signals in industry. Presently, automatic wire elongating machines to produce very thin wiresare available for manufacturing. However, the original wires for the elongating process to thin sizes need heating, drawing and then threadingthrough the die molds by the manpower before the machine starts to work. This procedure repeatsuntil the wire threads through all various die molds. To replace the manpower, this paper aims to develop an automatic wire die molds threading system for the wire elongation process. Three pneumatic grippers are designed in the proposed system. The first gripper is used to clamp the wire. The second gripper fixed in the rotating mechanism is to draw the heated wire. The third gripper is used to move the wire for threading through the dies mold. The force designed for drawing the wire can be adjusted via the gear ratio. The experimental results confirm that the proposed system can accomplish the wiredies mold threading processin term of robustness, rapidness and accuracy.

Measurement of Young’s Modulus of Wire by automatic Counting method of Interferometric Ring

Young’s modulus is an important physical quantity to describe the deformation resistance of solid materials, and it is one of the commonly used parameters in engineering technology. A device for measuring Young’s modulus of wire by automatic counting of interference ring is mainly composed of an automatic counter of interference ring, a Michelson interferometer, a tension tester and a wire to be tested. The elongation of wire is recorded by recording the number of interference fringes and rotating coarse adjusting knob by using the automatic counter of interference ring, and at the same time measuring the tension applied on the wire to be measured by using the digital explicit tension measuring device, and substituting the calculation formula. The Young’s modulus of the wire to be measured can be obtained directly.

The mechanical properties of rolled wire-reinforced aluminum composites at different strain values

The analysis of strain parameters at rolling of aluminum composite with wire-reinforcement was carried out in the present experimental work. The roll bonding of two strips of EN AW-5083 alloy with and without diagonal stainless-steel net-reinforcement between them was experimentally proceeded with different reductions. It is analyzed the influence of the rolling reduction in the range from 25% to 55% on the straining of the wires and composite bonding mechanisms. The present experimental work is established and used the set of describing parameters of the net behavior in the composite such as net cell elongation, wire elongation and wire ovalisation. The means of longitudinal and transversal tensile testing, impact testing and microscopic analysis determine the properties of the rolled composite. The analysis of the rolling reduction influence on the mechanisms of bonding formation in the composite its properties and fracture behavior are carried out. Based on the conducted tests, it was established the optimum range of rolling reductions.

Influence of strain parameters at rolling on the properties of wire-reinforced aluminium composites

The present experimental work is devoted to the analysis of strain parameters at rolling of aluminium composite with wire-reinforcement. The experiments on roll bonding of two strips of EN AW-5083 alloy with and without diagonal stainless steel net-reinforcement between them were carried out with different reductions. The rolling reduction was varied in a range from 25 to 55% and its influence on the straining of the wires and bonding mechanisms was analysed. The parameters describing the net behaviour in the composite established and used are the following: net cell elongation, wire elongation and wire ovalisation. The properties of the rolled composite are determined by means of longitudinal and transversal tensile testing, impact testing and microscopic analysis. The influence of the rolling reduction on the mechanisms of bonding formation in the composite, its properties and fracture behaviour are analysed. The optimum range of rolling reductions was established based on the conducted tests. The reinforcing net allowed reaching a tough bonding between the strip’s layers during rolling at lower plastic reduction, while the strips without reinforcement could not be bonded at rolling reduction below 45%. The wire-reinforced strips showed higher strength and ductility under the tensile loading in rolling direction and higher toughness during impact testing than the non-reinforced aluminium strips.

Overhead Transmission Line Sag Estimation Using a Simple Optomechanical System with Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings. Part 1: Preliminary Measurements.

A method of measuring the power line wire sag using optical sensors that are insensitive to high electromagnetic fields was proposed. The advantage of this technique is that it is a non-invasive measurement of power line wire elongation using a unique optomechanical system. The proposed method replaces the sag of the power line wire with an extension of the control sample and then an expansion of the attached chirped fiber Bragg grating. This paper presents the results of the first measurements made on real aluminum-conducting steel-reinforced wire, frequently used for power line construction. It has been shown that the proper selection of the CFBG (chirped fiber Bragg grating) transducer and the appropriate choice of optical parameters of such a sensor will allow for high sensitivity of the line wire elongation and sag while reducing the sensitivity to the temperature. It has been shown that with a simple optomechanical system, a non-invasive measurement of the power line wire sag that is insensitive to temperature changes and the influence of high electromagnetic fields can be achieved.

Materials Characteristics of Ag-Alloy Wires and Their Applications in Advanced Packages

The materials characteristics of annealing-twinned Ag-alloy wires with various Au and Pd contents were evaluated in this paper. The results indicated that both Ag-8Au-3Pd and Ag-15Au-3Pd have higher strength and corrosion resistance than do pure Ag and binary Ag-Pd wires. On the other hand, the pure Ag, Ag-0.5Pd, Ag-3Pd, and Ag-4Pd wires possess the merits of lower material cost, higher electrical conductivity, and higher electromigration durability than do the ternary Ag-Au-Pd wires. However, the breaking load and elongation of pure Ag wire are inferior to those of Ag-0.5Pd, Ag-3Pd, and Ag-4Pd wires. In addition, the corrosion resistances of pure Ag and Ag-0.5Pd wires are far inferior to those of Ag-3Pd and Ag-4Pd wires. Based on these performances, the ternary Ag-8Au-3Pd wire is an ideal substitute for the traditional Au wire due to its high strength, corrosion resistance, and reliability, while the Ag-3Pd and Ag-4Pd are cost-friendly bonding wires for high-frequency integrated circuit devices.

Vibration measurements of a wire scanner – Experimental setup and models

In the next years the luminosity of the LHC will be significantly increased. This will require a much higher accuracy of beam profile measurement than actually achievable by the current wire scanner. The new performance demands a wire travelling speed up to 20ms−1 and a position measurement accuracy of the order of 1μm. The vibrations of the mechanical parts of the system and particularly the vibrations of the thin carbon wire have been identified as the major error sources of wire position uncertainty. Therefore the understanding of the wire vibrations has been given high priority for the design and operation of the new device. This article presents a new strategy to measure the wire vibrations based on the piezoresistive effect of the wire itself. An electronic readout system based on a Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the variation of the carbon wire resistance, which is directly proportional to the wire elongation caused by the oscillations.

Improvement of an Algorithm for Estimation of Reaction Torque and Compensation for Elongation of Wire for Wire-Actuated Robotic Forceps

Improvement of an Algorithm for Estimation of Reaction Torque and Compensation for Elongation of Wire for Wire-Actuated Robotic Forceps

Estimation of Reaction Torque and Compensation for Elongation of Wire for Wire Actuated Robotic Forceps

When a load is added to the tip of a wire actuated robotic forceps, tracking accuracy of the forceps is degraded due to the elastic elongation of the wire. In this paper, for the wire actuated robotic forceps, a new algorithm that can estimate a reaction torque and an amount of elongation of the wire, is proposed. By compensating for amount of elongation of the wire, track ability of the forceps is improved. The effectiveness of the proposed algorithm was verified through simulation and experimental works.