Elite Swimming Research Articles

Autologous tenocyte implantation into shoulder tendon pathology in an elite swimmer

IntroductionThe use of novel bioengineer treatment techniques such as Autologous Tenocyte Implantation (ATI) have shown promising improvements in both pain ratings and functional outcomes in elbow, gluteal and shoulder tendon pathology. This case will review the injury timeline of ATI intervention in an elite male swimmer with subscapularis tendon pathology and investigate whether ATI has a concomitant healing effect associated with improved functional outcomes. MethodsA palmaris longus tendon biopsy was performed and cells were expanded by in-vitro culture. Autologous tenocytes were injected into the subscapularis site identified. Three blinded radiologists reported on pre and post shoulder MRIs using the same 3T MRI protocol. A validated rating scale for severity of tendinopathy (0–3) and degree of tear (0–3) was used and hand-held Dynamometry (HHD) strength was recorded. ResultsIndependent blinded radiology review demonstrated a significant reduction in tear size and improved tendon morphology. IR strength on HHD returned to baseline strength levels post ATI (231–253N) 6 weeks post intervention. The athlete returned to full training (volume and intensity) pain free and international level competition at 4 months post ATI. ConclusionAn athlete who had previously undergone unsuccessful conservative management demonstrated significant improvement in function and in tendon morphology post intervention.

Re-Immersing Into Elite Swimming Culture: A Meta-Autoethnography by a Former Elite Swimmer

This paper presents two meta-autoethnographies written by a former elite swimmer. In the first metaautoethnography, the swimmer revealed doubts in relation to details, emotions and inner-thoughts that she had included in her historical autoethnographic work. As a means of sorting and pondering these tensions and uncertainties, the swimmer explored cultural re-immersion as a possible additional element in the metaautoethnographic process. The second meta-autoethnography centers on the swimmer’s re-immersion into elite swimming culture. It was revealed how cultural re-immersion enabled the swimmer to better reflect on her historical autoethnographic work by providing a more conscientized, rational and reflexive voice. This research highlights how cultural re-immersion should be considered as an additional element in the metaautoethnographic process as it benefits both the author and also audience.

A Policy Analysis of the Development of Elite Swimming in China Between 2000 and 2012: A National Team Perspective

A variety of factors have contributed to China’s recent recovery in elite swimming in particular its success in the London Olympiad. The poor performance at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games was a ‘wake-up call’, which in conjunction with Beijing’s successful Olympic bid in 2001, opened policy windows prompting large-scale review and reform from which a broad range of ‘heavyweight’ policy actions were introduced and implemented. However, the road to recent success has been ‘bumpy’ during which there were other key events that have left an indelible imprint on Chinese swimming. Therefore, the multiple streams framework in general and the concept of policy windows in particular afford a theoretical gateway to structure policy analysis of elite swimming in China. Moreover, as a Western-derived theory the application of which to a sports context has been very sporadic, the multiple streams framework is evaluated regarding its applicability, or ‘compatibility’. Five semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders were conducted, accompanied by comprehensive document analysis of official documents and website information of associated sports-governing bodies and associations, and influential domestic and foreign media.

I am fast but I do not fit: an autoethnography of a swimmer’s experiences of ‘competitive performance’ stigma in two sporting contexts

ABSTRACTGiven that research outside of sport and exercise has found that stigma may cause severe consequences (e.g. depression), it is important to explore the concept in regard to its connection to socio-cultural issues in the development and persistence of stigmatisation in sporting contexts. Analytic autoethnography and Goffman’s theory of stigma was used to explore one female swimmer’s experiences of ‘enacted’ and ‘felt’ competitive performance stigma occurring in elite swimming and a masters swimming context. Competitive performance stigma has not been conceptualised or explored as a stigma type in sport research, however through the presentation and analysis of two vignettes and the use of Goffman, this is achieved. The social agents that contributed to both ‘enacted’ and ‘felt’ competitive performance stigma and the consequences/effects (e.g. withdrawal from sport, feelings of shame) for this swimmer are highlighted. Our analysis further highlights the role of particular cultural insiders (e.g. coaches, team managers and other swimmers) in the reproduction of competitive performance stigma through acts of labelling, discrimination and social isolation. These acts positioned the female swimmer as an ‘outsider’ because of her competitive performance which in turn led to her withdrawal from these two sporting contexts highlighting the implications for recipients of stigmatisation.

Fleshy, female and forty: a docudrama of a former elite swimmer who re-immersed herself into elite swimming culture

This film is presented as a docudrama, where video diaries and other elements of film production capture the six-month journey of a former elite swimmer who re-immersed herself into an elite swimming culture as a 40-year-old woman. Over a six-month period, the former swimmer subjected herself to the same training schedule and coaching practices that current Australian elite swimmers undertake, capturing video diaries of her experiences during this time. Her re-immersion in this culture was a conscious decision, undertaken in order for her to identify whether body practices that she was subjected to 16 years earlier were still occurring in the present day. Previous research on elite swimming culture has revealed how body practices which centre on attaining the ideal body for competitive performance cause detrimental effects for swimmers in both the short and also long term. This research provides a first-hand athlete perspective of elite swimming culture in the present day and whether these detrimental ways of approaching the swimmer body for the sake of competitive performance are still occurring. Two parts make up this research which include a brief written section which accompanies a 25-minute film. An evocative stance is adopted throughout the research where the audience is invited to draw their own conclusions from the lived experiences presented and whether or not detrimental body practices are still occurring in this culture in the present day.

Using Tri-Axial Accelerometry in Daily Elite Swim Training Practice.

Background: Coaches in elite swimming carefully design the training programs of their swimmers and are keen on achieving strict adherence to those programs by their athletes. At present, coaches usually monitor the compliance of their swimmers to the training program with a stopwatch. However, this measurement clearly limits the monitoring possibilities and is subject to human error. Therefore, the present study was designed to examine the reliability and practical usefulness of tri-axial accelerometers for monitoring lap time, stroke count and stroke rate in swimming. Methods: In the first part of the study, a 1200 m warm-up swimming routine was measured in 13 elite swimmers using tri-axial accelerometers and synchronized video recordings. Reliability was determined using the typical error of measurement (TEM) as well as a Bland-Altman analysis. In the second part, training compliance both within and between carefully prescribed training sessions was assessed in four swimmers in order to determine the practical usefulness of the adopted accelerometric approach. In these sessions, targets were set for lap time and stroke count by the coach. Results: The results indicated high reliability for lap time (TEM = 0.26 s, bias = 0.74 [0.56 0.91] with limits of agreement (LoA) from −1.20 [−1.50 −0.90] to 2.70 [2.40 3.00]), stroke count (TEM 0.73 strokes, bias = 0.46 [0.32 0.60] with LoA from −1.70 [−1.94 −1.46] to 2.60 [2.36 2.84]) and stroke rate (TEM 0.72 str∙min−1, bias = −0.13 [−0.20 −0.06] with LoA from −2.20 [−2.32 −2.08] to 1.90 [1.78 2.02]), while the results for the monitoring of training compliance demonstrated the practical usefulness of our approach in daily swimming training. Conclusions: The daily training of elite swimmers can be accurately and reliably monitored using tri-axial accelerometers. They provide the coach with more useful information to guide and control the training process than hand-clocked times.

Analysis on Physiological Response during British Swimming Training Program among Korean College Elite Swimmer

Analysis on Physiological Response during British Swimming Training Program among Korean College Elite Swimmer

Current Warm-Up Practices and Contemporary Issues Faced by Elite Swimming Coaches.

McGowan, CJ, Pyne, DB, Raglin, JS, Thompson, KG, and Rattray, B. Current warm-up practices and contemporary issues faced by elite swimming coaches. J Strength Cond Res 30(12): 3471-3480, 2016-A better understanding of current swimming warm-up strategies is needed to improve their effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to describe current precompetition warm-up practices and identify contemporary issues faced by elite swimming coaches during competition. Forty-six state-international level swimming coaches provided information through a questionnaire on their prescription of volume, intensity, and recovery within their pool and dryland-based competition warm-ups, and challenges faced during the final stages of event preparation. Coaches identified four key objectives of the precompetition warm-up: physiological (elevate body temperature and increase muscle activation), kinesthetic (tactile preparation, increase "feel" of the water), tactical (race-pace rehearsal), and mental (improve focus, reduce anxiety). Pool warm-up volume ranged from ∼1300 to 2100 m, beginning with 400-1000 m of continuous, low-intensity (∼50-70% of perceived maximal exertion) swimming, followed by 200-600 m of stroke drills and 1-2 sets (100-400 m in length) of increasing intensity (∼60-90%) swimming, concluding with 3-4 race or near race-pace efforts (25-100 m; ∼90-100%) and 100-400 m easy swimming. Dryland-based warm-up exercises, involving stretch cords and skipping, were also commonly prescribed. Coaches preferred swimmers complete their warm-up 20-30 minutes before race start. Lengthy marshalling periods (15-20+ minutes) and the time required to don racing suits (>10 minutes) were identified as complicating issues. Coaches believed that the pool warm-up affords athletes the opportunity to gain a tactile feel for the water and surrounding pool environment. The combination of dryland-based activation exercises followed by pool-based warm-up routines seems to be the preferred approach taken by elite swimming coaches preparing their athletes for competition.

Do What (S)HE Says and You Will Be a Champion: Poetic Representations and the Unmuting of My Swimmer Body

A series of four poems were generated as a result of McMahon’s reimmersion into an elite swimming culture where she purposely revisited emotional and mental pain experienced 15 years earlier. Her reimmersion resulted in the re-engagement of torturous training and bodily regimes that other swimmers were subjected to and subjected themselves to. By presenting four evocative poetic representations, McMahon empowered and expressed her 40-year-old body’s sensations and experiences as she resubjected it to a culture that continues to torment her. These four poetic representations indeed assisted her to sort, ponder, and acknowledge her body’s experiences, voices, and her ever-evolving embodied consciousness. It is hoped that the audience will think and feel with McMahon’s bodily encounters, reflecting on them and drawing their own conclusions and understandings.

Humeral torsion and shoulder rotation range of motion parameters in elite swimmers.

Optimal shoulder rotation range of motion (ROM) for swimming is unknown. The primary aim of this study was to examine shoulder rotation ROM in elite swimmers, including the influence of humeral torsion on rotation ROM, in order to establish optimal shoulder rotation parameters for swimming. In addition, we examined the relationship between rotation ROM and shoulder pain. Descriptive cohort study. Seventy elite Australian swimmers provided shoulder pain history data prior to measurement of humeral torsion and passive and active shoulder rotation ROM. Repeated measure analyses of variance were used to investigate within and between participant differences for all variables. Associations between humeral torsion and rotation ROM were investigated using Pearson's correlation coefficient. Multiple regression analysis was utilised to examine the associations between rotation ROM and shoulder pain. Average humeral torsion angles of 27±10° (dominant side) and 31±10° (non-dominant side) were demonstrated in this elite swimming cohort. In general, increased humeral torsion was positively associated with increased internal rotation (IR) and decreased external rotation (ER) ROM. There were significant differences in both IR and ER ROM measured passively and actively (F2,136≥93.1, p<0.001) with passive ROM greater than active ROM (p<0.001) and active IR ROM measured in supine greater than measured in prone (p<0.001). There were no associations between any rotation ROM variables and current or history of shoulder pain (r2=0.058; p=0.46). Humeral torsion angle and passive shoulder IR ROM were similar while passive ER ROM was greater in elite swimmers compared to reported normal population values.

Environmental influence on the prevalence and pattern of airway dysfunction in elite athletes.

Elite swimming and boxing require athletes to achieve relatively high minute ventilation. The combination of a sustained high ventilation and provocative training environment may impact the susceptibility of athletes to exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of EIB in elite Great British (GB) boxers and swimmers. Boxers (n = 38, mean age: 22.1 ± 3.1 years) and swimmers (n = 44, mean age: 21.1 ± 2.6 years) volunteered for the study. Athletes completed an exercise-induced respiratory symptom questionnaire, baseline assessment of fraction of exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO), maximal spirometry manoeuvres and a eucapnic voluntary hyperpnoea (EVH) challenge. EIB was confirmed if forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1 ) reduced by ≥10% from baseline at two time points post-EVH challenge. The prevalence of EIB was greater in elite swimmers (30 of 44; 68%) than in boxers (3 of 38; 8%) (P < 0.001). Twenty-two out of the 33 (67%) EVH-positive athletes had no prior diagnosis of asthma/EIB. Moreover, 12% (6 of 49) of the EVH-negative athletes had a previous diagnosis of asthma/EIB. We found a correlation between FeNO and FEV1 change in lung function post-EVH challenge in swimmers (r = 0.32; P = 0.04) but not in boxers (r = 0.24; P = 0.15). The prevalence of EIB was ninefold greater in swimmers when compared with boxers. Athletes who train and compete in provocative environments at sustained high ventilation may have an increased susceptibility to EIB. It is not entirely clear whether increased susceptibility to EIB affects elite sporting performance and long-term airway health in elite athletes.

Does elite swimming accelerate lumbar intervertebral disc degeneration and increase low back pain? A cross-sectional comparison.

The aim was to elucidate elite swimming's possible influence on lumbar disc degeneration (DD) and low back pain (LBP). Lumbar spine MRI was performed on a group of elite swimmers and compared to a matched Finnish population-based no-sport group. One hundred elite swimmers and 96 no-sport adults, mean age 18.7/20.8, respectively, participated. Overall, the two groups had similar prevalence of DD. Swimmers had more DD in the upper lumbar spine but tended to have less DD at the lowest level. Prevalence of bulges and disc herniations were similar, but swimmers had significantly more bulges at L4-5. The swimmers reported less LBP, although not significantly (N.S.). If degenerative findings were present, the association between them and LBP was stronger in the no-sport group. Elite swimmers and controls had similar prevalence of DD and LBP, although the pattern of DD differed between the groups. In case of DD, swimmers reported less LBP, although N.S.

A Case Study Analysis of a High Performance Environment in Elite Swimming

ABSTRACTPrevious performance environment research in sport has either focused on specific variables in relative isolation or a multitude of variables without theoretically linking them together. Using a case study approach, we explored the high performance environment (HPE) in an elite swimming team through the theoretical lens of the HPE model [Jones, J. G., Gittins, M. J., & Hardy, L. (2009). Creating an environment where high performance is inevitable and sustainable: The high performance environment model. Annual Review of High Performance Coaching and Consulting, 1, 139–149]. The HPE model consists of four core components and a number of subcomponents: leadership (vision, support, challenge), performance enablers (information, instruments, incentives), people (attitudes, behaviours, capacity), and organizational culture (achievement, well-being, innovation, internal processes). The findings illustrate the relationships between a wide range of factors and sport performance, and provide qualitative evidence for the HPE model in an elite sport context. Nevertheless, several revisions are suggested in terms of integrating additional relevant concepts and considering differential weighting of the model's components. For practitioners operating in elite sport, adopting a holistic view of the performance environment draws attention to the numerous organizational influences on sport performers and encourages a more coordinated approach to developing high performance. Practitioners attempting to effectively intervene at an environmental level will need to be able to coach leaders, facilitate performance enablers, engage people, and shape cultural change.

Comparing Practices of US Swimming against a Global Model for Integrated Development of Mass and High Performance Sport

AbstractThis study examines the current state of swimming in the USA against an ideal-type model for developing high performance sport integrated with mass participation. A questionnaire was developed for the following elements of the model: talent development; advanced athlete support; training centers; competitions; intellectual services; partnerships with supporting agencies; and, balanced and integrated funding and structures of mass and elite sport. Survey questions were validated by twelve international experts including executives from sport governing bodies, swim coaches, academicians, and administrators. To determine the areas for improvement, 102 coaches completed the questionnaire. Possible advancements were further identified through semi-structured discussions with fifteen swimming administrators. Results suggest possible enhancements at macro level (e.g., new partnerships and incentives for greater support of mass and elite swimming), meso level (e.g., additional sources and models for better coach education and facilities), and micro level (e.g., advanced lifelong swimming guidelines for excellence of everyone).

Inertial Sensor Technology for Elite Swimming Performance Analysis: A Systematic Review.

Technical evaluation of swimming performance is an essential factor of elite athletic preparation. Novel methods of analysis, incorporating body worn inertial sensors (i.e., Microelectromechanical systems, or MEMS, accelerometers and gyroscopes), have received much attention recently from both research and commercial communities as an alternative to video-based approaches. This technology may allow for improved analysis of stroke mechanics, race performance and energy expenditure, as well as real-time feedback to the coach, potentially enabling more efficient, competitive and quantitative coaching. The aim of this paper is to provide a systematic review of the literature related to the use of inertial sensors for the technical analysis of swimming performance. This paper focuses on providing an evaluation of the accuracy of different feature detection algorithms described in the literature for the analysis of different phases of swimming, specifically starts, turns and free-swimming. The consequences associated with different sensor attachment locations are also considered for both single and multiple sensor configurations. Additional information such as this should help practitioners to select the most appropriate systems and methods for extracting the key performance related parameters that are important to them for analysing their swimmers’ performance and may serve to inform both applied and research practices.

Analysis of swimming performance: perceptions and practices of US-based swimming coaches

ABSTRACTIn elite swimming, a broad range of methods are used to assess performance, inform coaching practices and monitor athletic progression. The aim of this paper was to examine the performance analysis practices of swimming coaches and to explore the reasons behind the decisions that coaches take when analysing performance. Survey data were analysed from 298 Level 3 competitive swimming coaches (245 male, 53 female) based in the United States. Results were compiled to provide a generalised picture of practices and perceptions and to examine key emerging themes. It was found that a disparity exists between the importance swim coaches place on biomechanical analysis of swimming performance and the types of analyses that are actually conducted. Video-based methods are most frequently employed, with over 70% of coaches using these methods at least monthly, with analyses being mainly qualitative in nature rather than quantitative. Barriers to the more widespread use of quantitative biomechanical analysis in elite swimming environments were explored. Constraints include time, cost and availability of resources, but other factors such as sources of information on swimming performance and analysis and control over service provision are also discussed, with particular emphasis on video-based methods and emerging sensor-based technologies.

Poster 309 Anterolateral Ankle Pain in an Elite Swimmer

Poster 309 Anterolateral Ankle Pain in an Elite Swimmer

Mechanisms of tendon injury and repair.

Tendon disorders are common and lead to significant disability, pain, healthcare cost, and lost productivity. A wide range of injury mechanisms exist leading to tendinopathy or tendon rupture. Tears can occur in healthy tendons that are acutely overloaded (e.g., during a high speed or high impact event) or lacerated (e.g., a knife injury). Tendinitis or tendinosis can occur in tendons exposed to overuse conditions (e.g., an elite swimmer's training regimen) or intrinsic tissue degeneration (e.g., age-related degeneration). The healing potential of a torn or pathologic tendon varies depending on anatomic location (e.g., Achilles vs. rotator cuff) and local environment (e.g., intrasynovial vs. extrasynovial). Although healing occurs to varying degrees, in general healing of repaired tendons follows the typical wound healing course, including an early inflammatory phase, followed by proliferative and remodeling phases. Numerous treatment approaches have been attempted to improve tendon healing, including growth factor- and cell-based therapies and rehabilitation protocols. This review will describe the current state of knowledge of injury and repair of the three most common tendinopathies--flexor tendon lacerations, Achilles tendon rupture, and rotator cuff disorders--with a particular focus on the use of animal models for understanding tendon healing.

Front Crawl Swimming Analysis Using Accelerometers: A Preliminary Comparison between Pool and Flume

Biomechanical characteristics such as stroke rate and stroke length can be used to determine the velocity of a swimmer and can be analysed in both a swimming pool and a flume. The aim of the present preliminary study was to investigate the differences between the acceleration data collected from a swimming pool with that collected from a flume, as a function of the swimmer's stroke rate and stroke count, with the objective of identifying the impact on the swimmer's performance. The differences were determined by the analysis of the stroke's features, comparing several strokes normalized to one stroke count from an elite swimmer. Triaxial accelerometer logging using a sensor located in an arm band positioned immediately in the wrist was used to record the swimmer's stroke. There is statistical evidence that show that there are small differences between the pool and flume on medio-lateral wrist movements (0.64 < r< 0.75). The correlation coefficients are (0.75 <r< 0.83) and (0.82 <r< 0.89) for the other two axes.

Current warm-up practices and the contemporary issues faced by elite swimming coaches

Background: Only limited scientific evidence is available on the best for competition warm-up design in elite swimming. Given the recent occurrence of several major technical and technological changes in elite swimming competitions, coaches are left to draw upon outdated guidelines when designing athlete’s warm-up strategies. The aim of the present study was to describe current warm-up practices and identify contemporary issues faced by elite swimming coaches within the competition environment. Methods: A total of 46 state- to international-level swimming coaches from Australia, Britain and Canada completed a questionnaire consisting of 18 questions (9 multiple choice and 9 short answer) relating to their views on the value of competition warmups, the volume, intensity and recovery used in their pool and out of pool warm-ups and other related issues. Results: The coaches identified three main aims of the competition warm-up: physiological (to elevate body temperature and increase muscle activation), physical (to increase feel of the water) and mental (to improve focus and relax nerves). Total warm-up volume employed ranged from 800 to 2400 m, beginning with 300–900m of continuous, low intensity (typically 30–70% of perceived exertion) swimming, followed by 200–600mof increasing intensity (60–90%) with efforts lasting 100–300min length and concluding with several 25–50mrace or near race pace (90–100%) efforts totalling 100–300 m. Some land-based warm-up strategies are encouraged but are typically limited to static stretching and core activation exercises. The preferred time frame between pool warmup end and race start (transition phase) was 20 min. Extended marshalling periods (>15 min), delayed competition schedules and the lengthy time required to change into racing suits (>10 min) were all identified as issues faced during competition. These issues extend the transition phase beyond the preferred time frame. Discussion: Although pool warm-ups are thoroughly prescribed they do not appear to address issues relating to the extended duration of the marshalling periods and the time required to don racing suits. Elevated body temperatures in addition to increased muscle activation are two of the main purported benefits of warming-up but have a limited effect beyond ∼15–20 min following exercise cessation, a scenario common in the contemporary swimming environment. Given these constraints, sport scientists should investigate methods for improving body temperature maintenance such as passive heating techniques and muscle reactivation strategies like postactivation potentiation during the transition phase. These approaches may lead to the optimisation of competition performance in the contemporary swimming environment.