Elite Runners Research Articles

Chronic Achilles Tendinopathy in Runners: Relationship between Pain and Tendon Vascularity and Efficacy and Safety of the Radial Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy

Few studies report the possible correlation pain-paratendon microvascularity during the painful phase of the chronic Achilles tendinopathy and the efficacy of the radial shock wave therapy re-spect to other therapies. The aim of the present longitudinal, controlled study is to demonstrate the variation of the tendon micro vascularization in athletes affected by Achilles tendinopathy and the efficacy and safety of the radial extracorporeal shock wave therapy. Twelve elite runners with Achilles tendinopathy were compared with 12 healthy amateurs, both treated by radial extracorporeal shock wave therapy in 3 sessions (1/every 3 days). VAS scale was used for pain evaluation at one and six months after treatment and a Color and Power Doppler echography was performed to observe the paratendon microvascularity before the beginning of the treatment and at one and six months after. One month after the beginning of the treatment, it was observed a decrease of the hypervascularity in all 12 subjects with tendinopathy and no variation in the control group participants. Clinically, 80% of patients referred pain relief and they were able to return to sports activity. The decrease of the paratendon microvascularity confirms the correlation between the disappearance of the pain and the normalization of the vascularity in the athletes. Moreover, radial extracorporeal shock wave therapy consented a quickly pain relief and returned to the sport. These results confirmed the efficacy and safety of this physical therapy that it could be considered a good therapeutic choice in the treatment of the chronic Achilles tendinopathy.

MRunning: New Ways of Running in Kenya

This paper argues for new ways for Kenyan elite runners to use smartphones. The study focused on everyday use in social and professional practices to understand the interaction between smartphones, ...

PHYSICAL EXERTION MONITORING: ELITE ATHLETES MODIFY THEIR COACH’S TASK

Background. The objective of this study was to establish how accurately elite athletes carried out the task of a coach to perform an exercise at a given intensity. Methods. Cardiovascular indices were registered and analysed during a two-step research process. Two groups including six well-trained long-distance runners and 21 healthy non-athletes performed graded stress exercise up to the inability to continue the task. Runners took part in the second study in which heart rate and running pace were recorded during an aerobic training session. Results. Research findings showed that athletes demonstrated higher physical performance, but the maximum heart rate values achieved in the last fatigue phase did not differ significantly between the groups. No ischemic events were observed in elite athlete group during the entire physical test. Relatively stable heart rate indices in the maximal physical load step were observed in both groups, but heart rate indices were significantly lower during all physical load steps in the group of elite runners. Conclusions. Elite athletes carried out the coach’s task only in the first phase of running and further modified the task by maintaining the stability of the cardiovascular system

Gait-cycle characteristics and running economy in elite Eritrean and European runners.

This study aimed to determine whether biomechanical characteristics such as ground-contact time, swing time, and stride length and frequency contribute to the exceptional running economy of East African runners. Seventeen elite long-distance runners (9 Eritrean, 8 European) performed an incremental maximal running test and 3 submaximal running bouts at 17, 19, and 21 km/h. During the tests, gas-exchange parameters were measured to determine maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and running economy (RE). In addition, ground-contact time, swing time, stride length, and stride frequency were measured. The European runners had higher VO2max values than the Eritrean runners (77.2 ± 5.2 vs 73.5 ± 6.0 mL · kg-1 · min-1, P = .011, effect sizes [ES] = 0.65), although Eritrean runners were more economical at 19 km/h (191.4 ± 10.4 vs 205.9 ± 13.3 mL · kg-1 · min-1, P = .026, ES = 1.21). There were no differences between groups for ground-contact time, swing time, stride length, or stride frequency at any speed. Swing time was associated with running economy at 21 km/h in the Eritrean runners (r = .71, P = .033), but no other significant association was found between RE and biomechanical variables. Finally, best 10-km performance was significantly correlated with RE (r = -.57; P = .013). Eritrean runners have superior RE compared with elite European runners. This appears to offset their inferior VO2max. However, the current data suggest that their better RE does not have a biomechanical basis. Other factors, not measured in the current study, may contribute to this RE advantage.

A Decline in Anaerobic Distance Capacity of Champion Athletes over the Years?

The purpose of this study is to investigate trends over time in critical speed, anaerobic distance capacity and maximal ‘instantaneous’ speed of male and female running record holders. At ten year intervals, a model of human bioenergetics is fitted to the then existing records at nine distances from 100m to the marathon, to provide estimates of these performance attributes. An indicator variable accounts for gender differences. Critical speed for men over the last 100 years and for women over the last 50 years has risen; men by 30% and women by 73% (though still below that of men). Maximal instantaneous speed has risen similarly. Conversely, anaerobic distance capacity has been declining. For men the decline has been slow but significant, but in women it has been dramatic. Application of this model to the progression of running records confirms training and cross-sectional studies suggesting that changes in performance parameters of elite runners are not independent of each other. Evolutionary or training induced performance improvements do not necessarily imply improvements in all parameters of the bioenergetic system.

Tapering strategies in elite British endurance runners

The aim of the study was to explore pre-competition training practices of elite endurance runners. Training details from elite British middle distance (MD; 800 m and 1500 m), long distance (LD; 3000 m steeplechase to 10,000 m) and marathon (MAR) runners were collected by survey for 7 days in a regular training (RT) phase and throughout a pre-competition taper. Taper duration was [median (interquartile range)] 6 (3) days in MD, 6 (1) days in LD and 14 (8) days in MAR runners. Continuous running volume was reduced to 70 (16)%, 71 (24)% and 53 (12)% of regular levels in MD, LD and MAR runners, respectively (P < 0.05). Interval running volume was reduced compared to regular training (MD; 53 (45)%, LD; 67 (23)%, MAR; 64 (34)%, P < 0.05). During tapering, the peak interval training intensity was above race speed in LD and MAR runners (112 (27)% and 114 (3)%, respectively, P < 0.05), but not different in MD (100 (2)%). Higher weekly continuous running volume and frequency in RT were associated with greater corresponding reductions during the taper (R = −0.70 and R = −0.63, respectively, both P < 0.05). Running intensity during RT was positively associated with taper running intensity (continuous intensity; R = 0.97 and interval intensity; R = 0.81, both P < 0.05). Algorithms were generated to predict and potentially prescribe taper content based on the RT of elite runners. In conclusion, training undertaken prior to the taper in elite endurance runners is predictive of the tapering strategy implemented before competition.

Rates of breathing values and kinetics of respiration response in critical patterns of muscular activity in middle and long distance running

Parameters of ventilation influx, ventilation debt and ventilation demand of exercise were calculated on the basis of heart rate dynamics and parameters of external breathing during the testing procedure and recovery of elite runners during of the maximum workout. It was established that all of external breathing values closely reproduce changes of basic parameters of oxygen demand during the exercises at high intensity and duration and can be used for quantification and valuation of exercise loads in sport. During the conducted at the research it was experimentally proved that high level of sporting achievements in middle and long distance running is defined by three major factors of an aerobic exchange in an organism: 1. General ratio of increase in level of pulmonary ventilation (VE), consumption of oxygen (VO2) and allocation of carbon dioxide (CO2); 2. During the expiration--rate and of supply speed of oxygen (O2) from lungs to working muscles; 3. Rate of oxygenation (StO2) and total speed of the blood-groove.

Carbohydrate beverages attenuate bone resorption markers in elite runners

ObjectiveWe evaluated the effects of carbohydrate (CHO) supplementation on markers of bone turnover in elite runners. DesignTwenty-four male runners were randomly assigned to two groups – a CHO and a control (CON) group – using a double-blind design. The participants were submitted to an overload training program (days 1–8), followed by a high-intensity intermittent running protocol (10×800m) on day 9. They received a maltodextrin solution (CHO group) or a placebo solution as the CON equivalent, before, during, and after these protocols. ResultsAfter 8days of intensive training, baseline levels of osteocalcin (OC) decreased in both CHO and CON groups (before: 28.8±3.6 and 26.6±2.4ng/ml, after: 24.8±3.0 and 21.9±1.6ng/ml, respectively, p<0.01). On day 9, at 80min of the recovery period, carboxy-terminal of telopeptide type I collagen (CTX) serum concentration was suppressed in the CHO group (0.3±0.1ng/ml) vs. 0.6±0.0ng/ml for the CON group (p<0.01). CHO supplementation was effective in decreasing CTX levels from baseline to recovery (0.5±0.1ng/mL to 0.3±0.1ng/mL, p<0.001), while an increase from 0.4±0.0ng/mL to 0.6±0.0ng/mL (p<0.001) was observed in the CON group. ConclusionCHO beverage ingestion attenuated the exercise-induced increase in CTX concentration, suggesting that CHO supplementation is a potential strategy to prevent bone damage in athletes.

Relationship of carotid intima-media thickness with ldl phenotype in elite runners

Relationship of carotid intima-media thickness with ldl phenotype in elite runners

Effects of Heat Stress and Sex on Pacing in Marathon Runners

Recent research suggests that women tend to exhibit less of a precipitous decline in run velocity during the latter stages of a marathon than men when the covariates of age and run time are controlled for. The purpose of this study was to examine this sex effect with the added covariate of heat stress on pacing, defined as the mean velocity of the last 12.2 km divided by the mean velocity of the first 30 km. A secondary purpose of this investigation was to compare the pacing profiles of the elite men and women runners and the pacing profiles of the elite and nonelite runners. Subjects included 22,990 men and 13,233 women runners from the 2007 and 2009 Chicago marathons for which the mean ambient temperatures were 26.67° C and 2.77° C, respectively. Each 5-km split time was measured via an electronic chip worn on the participants' shoe. Multiple regression analysis indicated that age, sex, heat stress, and overall finish time (p < 0.01 for each) were simultaneous independent elements of pacing. Nonelite women were consistently better pacers than nonelite men in both marathons, and this sex difference was magnified from cold to warm race temperatures. No difference (p < 0.05) in pacing was found between elite men and women runners. Elite men and women had enhanced pacing over their nonelite counterparts. In hotter temperatures, coaches of novice runners should advise their athletes to implement a slower initial velocity to maintain or increase running velocity later in the race.

The older they rise the younger they fall: age and performance trends in men’s professional tennis from 1991 to 2012

In 2012, 3 out of 10 singles players in the top 100 on the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) World Tour were 30 years old or older – nearly a four-fold increase over 20 years ago, suggesting that the “old at 30” view in men’s tennis may be an old reality. In this paper, I investigate aging patterns among top ATP singles players between 1991 and 2012 and consider how surface effects, career length, and age at peak performance have influenced aging trends. Following a decade and a half of little change, the average age of top singles players has increased at a pace of 0.34 years per season since the mid-2000s, reaching an all-time high of 27.9 years in 2012. Underlying this age shift was a coincident rise in the proportion of 30-and-overs (29% in 2012) and the virtual elimination of teenagers from the top 100 (0% in 2012). Because the typical age players begin competing professionally has varied little from 18 years in the past two decades, career length has increased in step with player age. Demographics among top players on each of today’s major surfaces indicate that parallel aging trends have occurred on clay, grass, and hard court from the late 2000s forward. As a result of the changing age demographic over the past decade, the age of tennis’s highest-ranked singles players is now comparable to the age of elite long-distance runners. This evolution likely reflects changes in tennis play that have made endurance and fitness increasingly essential for winning success.

AQUA© as predictor of allergy in elite marathon runners

Background The prevalence of allergy in athletes is increasing, and its risk varies across sports. The risk is dependent mainly on the ventilation rate and environmental factors; however, the prevalence of allergy in elite runners remains unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to screen allergy symptoms in elite marathon runners by using a validated questionnaire for screening allergy in athletes.Methods Two hundred and one elite marathoners, who participated in the most competitive Brazilian marathons and half-marathons during 2011, were invited to complete a validated self-report Allergy Questionnaire for Athletes (AQUA©), with additional questions pertaining to training history, such as running experience, running distance per week and their best race time in marathon or half-marathon events.Results Sixty percent of the assessed athletes reported allergy symptoms as defined by a positive AQUA outcome (score [greater than or equal to] 5). No significant differences (p > 0.05) between groups (AQUA + and AQUA-) were observed for gender, age, running experience, weekly training volume and best performance time in the half-marathon and marathon. The most frequently reported symptoms were related to the respiratory tract and physical effort.Conclusions This study demonstrates that AQUA©can be used to predict allergy in elite marathon runners. In addition, these athletes have a higher prevalence of allergy symptoms to elite athletes from other sports.

Association of hypertension status and cardiovascular risks with sympathovagal imbalance in first degree relatives of type 2 diabetics.

As reports show cardiovascular (CV) risks in first-degree relatives (FDR) of type2 diabetics, and autonomic imbalance predisposing to CV risks, in the present study we have assessed the contribution of sympathovagal imbalance (SVI) to CV risks in these subjects. Body mass index (BMI), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), basal heart rate (BHR), blood pressure (BP), rate pressure product (RPP), and spectral indices of heart rate variability (HRV) were reordered and analyzed in FDR of type2 diabetics (study group, n=293) and in subjects with no family history of diabetes (control group, n=405). The ratio of low-frequency (LF) to high-frequency (HF) power of HRV (LF-HF), a sensitive marker of SVI, was significantly increased (P<0.001) in the study group compared with the control group. The SVI in the study group was due to concomitant sympathetic activation (increased LF) and vagal inhibition (decreased HF). In the study group, the LF-HF ratio was significantly correlated with BMI, WHR, BHR, BP and RPP. Multiple regression analysis showed an independent contribution of LF-HF to hypertension status (P=0.000), and bivariate logistic regression showed significant prediction (odds ratio 2.16, confidence interval 1.130-5.115) of LF-HF to increased RPP, the marker of CV risk, in the study group. Sympathovagal imbalance in the form of increased sympathetic and decreased parasympathetic activity is present in FDR of type2 diabetics. Increased resting heart rate, elevated hypertension status, decreased HRV and increased RPP in these subjects make them vulnerable to CV risks. SVI in these subjects contributes to CV risks independent of the degree of adiposity.

Exercise addiction in Spanish athletes: Investigation of the roles of gender, social context and level of involvement.

In nomothetic research exercise addiction is studied on the basis of symptoms which are most often linked to exercise volume. However, other factors may also affect individuals' susceptibility to the disorder. The aim of this research was to examine the influence of gender, social context (team or individual sport), and level of athletic training on symptoms of exercise addiction. Two groups of university athletes - sport- (n = 57) and non-sport orientation (n = 90) - and a group of elite ultra-marathon runners (n = 95) completed the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI). The psychometric properties of the Spanish EAI were determined. EAI scores were higher in men than women (p = .018). Participants in team sports reported higher EAI scores than individual athletes (p = .005). Elite runners scored higher on the EAI than university athletes (p = .005), but their scores were unrelated to the volume of training. The prevalence of "at risk" for exercise addiction was 7%-10% in university athletes and 17% among the ultra-marathon runners. The Spanish EAI showed good psychometric properties. The results of the current inquiry show that several factors - including gender, level of athletic training, and social context of the training - affect exercise addiction and, in line with the literature, the volume of exercise did not emerge as an index of susceptibility to exercise addiction.

Correlation of foot-strike pattern and performance in a mid-size city marathon

Introduction: A small number of studies have provided “inrace” foot-strike prevalence of runners in midto long-distance races. The recent studies each classified the foot-strike of less than 300 runners in half-marathon and marathon races. The runner populations varied from all elite runners to mostly “recreational” runners. The prevalence of heel-strike ranged from 74.9% to 93.0%. Correlation with performance, however, has been impossible due to the small sample sizes. Using a seven-fold larger runner population, this study aims to more accurately define the prevalence of heel-strike in a mid-size city marathon and to determine if a correlation between foot-strike and performance exists. Patients/materials and methods: 2112 runners in the 2011 Milwaukee Lakefront Marathon were filmed at the 5.02-mile mark using a Casio EX-ZR100,with a frame rate of 240 frames/s. The camerawassecurelymountedataheightof24 in. andadistanceof12 in. from the side of the road. The camerawas angled at 30degrees from a direct lateral, or perpendicular angle. Foot-strike classification was determined by a 3-member panel utilizing frame-by-frame analysis. Classifications included fore-foot strike, mid-foot strike, heel strike, and split strike (asymmetric between consecutive footstrikes). Results: 1991 runners were classified by foot-strike pattern: 11 fore-foot (0.55%), 101 mid-foot (5.07%), 1865 heel (93.67%), and 14 split (0.70%). The heel-strike prevalence of 93.67%wasmore prominent than in prior studies of both recreational and elite runners. A correlation was demonstrated between foot-strike and performance (as measured by position in race at the 5.02-mile mark), with a p-value <0.0001. Fore-foot strikers were followed by splitstrikers, then mid-foot strikers, then heel-strikers. There was no significant correlation demonstrated between foot-strike and gender (p-value =0.0727). Discussion and conclusions: This study is the largest “in-race” observational study of marathon runners to date. It unequivocally demonstrates: (a) heel-strike prevalence in a predominantly subelite population of runners is significantly greater than previously documented in more elite running populations and (b) foot-strike is correlated with performance (as measured by position in race). Shoe wear (minimalist versus traditional) was not correlated with position in race in non-heel strikers, perhaps placingmore emphasis on foot-strike than shoewear for performance. Further research is necessary to elucidate whether non-heel strike running form produces a faster runner or a faster runner produces a non-heel strike running form.

METABOLIC AND MECHANICAL RESPONSES TO 200–400 M RACES IN HIGH LEVEL SPRINTERS

The 400 m run is one of the most demanding athletic events. In 400 m, muscle acidosis decreases force production. A large number of both biochemical and biophysical changes occur...

The 'Rationality' of the Long Distance Runner: Prospect Theory and the Marathon

We examine whether marathon runners exhibit behavior consistent with the assumptions of prospect theory. We test whether round number finishing times (three hours, four hours, etc.) are used as reference points and whether runners increase their effort at the end of the race to avoid the “loss” of missing the reference point. While we find that all runners exhibit evidence of reference dependence and loss aversion with regard to the hypothesized reference points, we find that males act more in line with the predictions of prospect theory than females. First, we find more extreme bunching of finish times at round numbers in the male distribution. We also find that males are more likely than females to speed up when doing so will help them meet a round number finish time. We then investigate whether Boston Marathon qualifying times are used as reference points for “elite” runners. In contrast to our results for round number finishing times, we find that elite female runners act in a similar manner to elite males and exert similar effort at the end of the race to meet these reference points. This suggests that females who endure the training to become elite runners have similar competitive profiles to males.

When celebrity athletes are ‘social movement entrepreneurs’: A study of the role of elite runners in run-for-peace events in post-conflict Kenya in 2008

This paper reports findings from a study of the role played by high-profile Kenyan runners in the organization of Run-for-Peace events that took place in response to election-related violence in Kenya in late 2007 and early 2008. Acknowledging concerns expressed by some sociologists of sport about the role of celebrity athletes in the sport for development and peace movement, we suggest that in the particular contexts we studied, high-profile athletes played a crucial role in the organization of reconciliation events. Informed by interviews with former and current elite Kenyan runners and others involved in the organization of these events, we argue that the apparent effectiveness of the athletes in mobilizing resources, pursuing political opportunities and devising a collective action frame was possible because of the extant positioning of the athletes in the impacted communities, the active involvement in and personal investment of the athletes in the outcome of the peace-promoting activities, and the unique pre-Olympic moment in which the events took place. In doing so, we differentiate between celebrity athletes who are a ‘presence’ at sport for development and peace events, and those who might be considered ‘social movement entrepreneurs’. We conclude the paper by describing how strands of social movement theory were helpful in guiding our analysis of high-profile athletes and peace promotion, and with suggestions for future research pertaining to sport-related reconciliation movements.

A Comparison of Anthropometric and Training Characteristics between Female and Male Half-Marathoners and the Relationship to Race Time.

Lower limb skin-fold thicknesses have been differentially associated with sex in elite runners. Front thigh and medial calf skin-fold appear to be related to 1,500m and 10,000m time in men but 400m time in women. The aim of the present study was to compare anthropometric and training characteristics in recreational female and male half-marathoners. The association between both anthropometry and training characteristics and race time was investigated in 83 female and 147 male recreational half marathoners using bi- and multi-variate analyses. In men, body fat percentage (β=0.6), running speed during training (β=-3.7), and body mass index (β=1.9) were related to half-marathon race time after multi-variate analysis. After exclusion of body mass index, r (2) decreased from 0.51 to 0.49, but body fat percentage (β=0.8) and running speed during training (β=-4.1) remained predictive. In women, body fat percentage (β=0.75) and speed during training (β=-6.5) were related to race time (r (2) =0.73). For women, the exclusion of body mass index had no consequence on the predictive variables for half-marathon race time. To summarize, in both female and male recreational half-marathoners, both body fat percentage and running speed during training sessions were related to half-marathon race times when corrected with co-variates after multi-variate regression analyses.

Genetic Profiles and Prediction of the Success of Young Athletes’ Transition from Middle- to Long-Distance Runs: An Exploratory Study

The aim of the study was to assess whether an aerobic-favoring genetic profile can predict the success of a shift from middle- to long-distance running. Thirteen elite middle-distance runners were divided into successful and nonsuccessful groups in their shift toward long-distance runs. All the runners began their training program at the age of 14-15, and after 6-7 years, changed focus and adjusted their training program to fit longer running distances. The participants' personal records in the longer events were set at the age of 25-27, about 3-5 years after the training readjustment took place. The endurance genetic score based on 9 polymorphisms was computed as the endurance genetic distance score (EGDS9). The power genetic distance score (PGDS5) was computed based on 5 power-related genetic polymorphisms. The mean EGDS9 was significantly higher among the successful group than the nonsuccessful group (37.1 and 23.3, respectively, p < .005, effect size 0.75), while the mean PGDS5 was not statistically different between the 2 groups (p = .13). Our findings suggest the possible use of genetic profiles as an added tool for determining appropriate competitive transition and specialization in young athletes involved in early phases of talent development.