Elite Referees Research Articles

Physiological Demands of Team-Handball Referees During Games

The objective of the present study was to examine the aerobic fitness and the physiological demands during competitive games in elite handball referees. Sixteen referees (age: 34.9 +/- 3.4 years, body mass: 77.4 +/- 10.6 kg, height: 173.5 +/- 7.5 cm, percent fat: 22.3 +/- 6.6%) of national and international levels (14 men and 2 women) were submitted to a multistage fitness test, to determine peak velocity (PV) and maximal heart rate (HR). After 48 hours, referees performed a submaximal intermittent shuttle-running test (3 minutes at 75 and 90% PV with 1-minute recovery), to determine speeds and HR at selected blood-lactate concentrations (2.0 and 4.0 mmol.L(-1)). Game intensities were arbitrarily established as follows: <HR2mmol (moderate), between HR2mmol and HR4mmol (heavy) and >HR4mmol (severe). Eight referees (2 per game) were monitored in 4 national level games. The mean VO(2)max of the referees was 48.5 +/- 6.1 ml.kg(-1).min(-1). Maximal HR, HR2mmol, and HR4mmol were 193 +/- 10, 154 +/- 13, and 167 +/- 10 b.min, respectively. The percent time spent in the moderate intensity domain was predominant (moderate 96.4%, heavy 2.3%, and severe 1.3% of total time, p < 0.05). These findings indicate that handball refereeing is of moderate intensity. In light of this study, results aerobic fitness does not seem to be a limiting factor in handball refereeing.

Injuries and Musculoskeletal Complaints in Referees-A Complete Survey in the Top Divisions of the Swiss Football League

To analyze the extent and characteristics of injuries and musculoskeletal complaints in elite football referees and to analyze differences between match and assistant referees. Retrospective cohort study. Training camp organized by the Swiss Referees Association. All 71 referees of the 2 top divisions of the Swiss Football League (2005-2006 season). The referees (66 males and 5 females) completed a questionnaire on their personal characteristics, referee qualifications, time spent in training and matches, career history of injuries, and musculoskeletal complaints caused by training or refereeing and were subsequently interviewed about the location, type, circumstances, and consequences of reported injuries. Incidence of injuries, frequency of musculoskeletal complaints, type of injuries, and complaints. A total of 41 injuries during the career were reported by 31 of 71 referees (44%). Injuries were incurred more frequently in training than during matches, and all injuries reported resulted in at least 2 weeks of absence from sport. About a quarter of the referees reported an injury, and almost 90% of the referees reported musculoskeletal complaints caused by refereeing during the preceding 12 months. In male referees, hamstring strains and ankle sprains were the most common injuries, and the hamstrings, knee, Achilles tendon, and calf were the most prevalent locations of musculoskeletal complaints. No significant difference in the incidence of injury or in the frequency of complaints was observed between match and assistant referees. Future studies should be designed prospectively and should include a larger group of female referees. Regarding the incidence of injuries and frequency of musculoskeletal complaints related to refereeing, prevention programs for football referees should be developed, evaluated, and implemented.

Fitness Test Results of Hungarian and International-Level Soccer Referees and Assistants

The aim of our research was primarily to compare the conditional abilities of European countries' Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) referees with those of Hungarian national and county referees and, secondly, to investigate whether the stop tests of FIFA and the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) provide reliable discrimination criteria between the different levels of referees. The main focuses of our research were speed and endurance, which were measured by the stop tests of FIFA and UEFA-namely, 50- and 200-m sprint runs and a 12-minute run, respectively (Cooper test). In our study, the test results of 2459 soccer referees were analyzed; they include the results of the total Hungarian population of referees and the results from 17 different European countries. Referees were classified into 6 different levels according to their qualifications. The results show that in the 12-minute run, FIFA referees covered the longest distance (3043 +/- 127 m), followed by the Hungarian elite referees (2939 +/- 136 m); less distance was covered by county III-level referees (2522 +/- 270 m). Differences between groups in the endurance event were significant (p < 0.05) in all cases. In the sprint runs, there was no difference between FIFA and Hungarian elite referees. In both sprints, FIFA-level and Hungarian elite referees performed the fastest times, and county III-level referees had the slowest times. It can be concluded that the aerobic fitness level demonstrated in the 12-minute run provides the most adequate criteria for discrimination between different competitive levels. Hungarian elite referees, on the basis of their fitness test results, are comparable with international-level referees. The major quality step in a referee's career can be located at the third-division competition level.

Physiological demands of basketball refereeing during international competition

To date, the physiological effects of elite competition on basketball players have been reported while very little information exists concerning the effects of elite competition on referees. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the physiological demands of basketball refereeing during international competition. Seven elite basketball referees volunteered for this study during a pre-Olympic women's basketball tournament. During each of the eight tournament matches, heart rate (HR), relative exercise intensity as a percentage of age-predicted maximum HR (HR(max)), proportion of match time within the ACSM-defined exercise intensity categories were recorded for each referee during each quarter of and the entire match. Comparisons between quarters for each variable were conducted using one-way ANOVAs. There were no significant differences between quarters for any variable. Referees, using a two-referee per match format, worked at an average HR of 150bpm (range 110-181bpm) for each quarter of the match, equating to a relative intensity of >70% HR(max) for the majority ( approximately 76%) of each quarter. Basketball refereeing during international competition results in significant physiological exertion at relatively high exercise intensities for Australian referees. Further studies will assist in the development of appropriate training programs for elite basketball referees to maintain and/or maximise performance.

Physiological Aspects of Soccer Refereeing Performance and Training

The role of the referee is far from minimal in the economy of soccer, as very often, particularly in professional soccer, a wrong judgment may have profound implications on the outcome of the game. In this regard, a better knowledge of soccer refereeing can obviously benefit the game. Recent studies have shown that during a competitive match, an elite soccer referee may cover 9-13 km attaining approximately 85-90% and approximately 70-80% of maximal heart rate and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), respectively. Of the total distance covered about 4-18% is covered at high intensity. Blood lactate concentration has been reported to be in the range of 4-5 mmol/L; however, during competitive matches, blood lactate concentrations as high as 14 mmol/L have been observed. This figure is similar to that extensively reported for soccer players, specifically paralleling that observed in midfield players. However, compared with players, referees are 15-20 years older, often have a non-professional status and cannot be substituted during the game. Furthermore, this important physical stress superimposes onto a high perceptual-cognitive workload throughout the entire game. In relation to fitness status, referees possess VO2max values somewhat lower than the players they officiate, with mean values in the range of 44-50 mL/kg/min. However, the methods used by the Federation Internationale de Football Association and the Union of European Football Associations to test referee fitness need to be changed as the current fitness tests do not relate to match performance. More task-specific tests such as the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test (YYIRT) have been devised and validated for use with referees. Given that aerobic performance is positively correlated with match performance, it is important that referees are trained to improve their ability to cover large distances during a match and also to repeat high-intensity efforts. A number of studies have shown large improvements in YYIRT performance following both short-term (12 weeks) and long-term (16 months) high-intensity interval training. Future research needs to focus on a number of important areas including the decision-making ability of referees when officiating under different conditions, such as high thermal strain, and the impact of age on both physical and mental performance.

Expertise and talent development in rugby refereeing: An ethnographic enquiry

We explore how expertise is obtained in the domain of rugby refereeing. The research data are qualitative and are drawn from an 18 month period working in collaboration with the Rugby Football Union Elite Referee Unit. Adopting an ethnographic mode of enquiry, the study combined long-term participant observation with in-depth interviewing, indirect observations and the collection of artefacts including existing protocol, coach feedback forms and strategic reports. The diversity of methodologies allowed us to examine how expertise is developed across various domains of analysis, including the intrapersonal, interpersonal, group and social perspectives. Building on expertise studies in “deliberate practice”, further prerequisites for expertise, at least in this domain and with these participants, incorporated “deliberate experience” and “transfer of skills”. Additionally, a key issue in the findings concerns a shift from “descriptive” towards a “non-linear processes”-oriented model of development. We conclude by identifying opportunities and limitations associated with the adoption of ethnography as a method for studying expertise.

Elite Refereeing Performance: Developing a Model for Sport Science Support

To identify a framework for referee training and selection, based on the key areas of effective performance, we conducted content analyses on Rugby Football Union referee assessor reports, referee training materials, performance profiles from a group of English premier league referees, and a review of published research on sports officiating. The Cornerstones Performance Model of Refereeing emerged, overarched by the psychological characteristics of excellence (see McCaffrey &amp; Orlick, 1989) and featuring four key areas: (a) knowledge and application of the law; (b) contextual judgment; (c) personality and management skills; and (d) fitness, positioning, and mechanics. Focus group interviews confirmed the usefulness of the model as an assessment and training tool, which the RFU now use to develop referees throughout England.

Physical demands of elite Rugby League referees, part two: heart rate responses and implications for training and fitness testing

The purpose of this study was to assess whether any characteristic patterns of heart rate (HR) responses could be identified in National Rugby League (NRL) referees (n= 6) during matches played in the 2001 season. The data have been plotted and discussed, in order that exercise program planning practitioners may gain improved understandings of the physiological requirements for referees. Some specific training suggestions have also been made. The HR was recorded every five seconds throughout six competition NRL matches; using a heart rate monitor with a built-in memory. The specific magnitudes of referees' HR mean values varied between individuals, possibly due to specific game intensities, referee fitness, and age. All referees however exhibited similar HR response patterns; characterised by frequent (13-20 per match) large transient upward and downward shifts (>20 beats.minute(-1)). Periods of elevated HR extended for between five sec and eight min at a time, and were further characterised as a typical cyclic wave of HR elevation and recovery (ranging from 99.2+/-12.4 beats.minute(-1) to 176.5+/-11.8 beats.minute(-1) [mean +/-95% CI]), with a work to rest ratio of 2:1. Steady state HR was not achieved at any time during any match. The findings of the present study, taken together with a recent motion analysis, indicate that Rugby League refereeing is a highly intermittent, variable intensity activity. Significant anaerobic contribution to performance appears likely. It is suggested that training and fitness assessment of athletes should reflect their specific demands; some specific recommendations have therefore been provided.

The Impact of Hardiness on Aerobic and Anaerobic Power Changes During a College Soccer Season

1516 Though recent research has highlighted soccer-specific fitness changes that occur over the course of a competitive season in elite foreign players and referees, little is known about the performance changes in high-level collegiate soccer players in the U.S. or about proposed psychological factors that may moderate the response to the stress of training. PURPOSE: To determine physical performance changes of Division I college soccer players throughout the competitive season and the relationship of these changes to levels of psychological hardiness. METHODS: Aerobic and anaerobic power were assessed in male (N = 23) collegiate soccer players using the Yo-Yo N = intermittent recovery test and vertical jump, respectively. The fitness assessments were administered at the beginning and end of the preseason, and at midseason. Players also completed the Hardiness Scale (Nowack, 1991). RESULTS: Repeated measures MANOVA revealed significant fitness changes over the competitive season (P<.001). Follow-ups indicated that these changes occurred for both the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test and vertical jump (Ps<.01). From preseason to the start of the season, aerobic fitness improved 37.3 ± 17.1% (P<.001) while anaerobic power remained unchanged (−1.0 ± 2.8%, p>.20). From the start of the season to mid-season, aerobic fitness decreased slightly (−7.4 ± 14.9%, p = .051), but still remained higher than preseason values (P<.01). Anaerobic power decreased 3.2 ± 4.1% (P<.01) during this same period and was below preseason values (P<.01). Hardiness was only found to be related to changes in vertical jump during the period between the end of preseason and midseason (r = −.56, p<.01). CONCLUSIONS: Typical training prior to and during a competitive soccer season appears to favor improvements in aerobic power at the expense of anaerobic power. Thus, it may be advisable to increase training specifically devoted to anaerobic power in order to prevent deteriorations over the competitive season. Hardiness appears to be a better predictor of psychological changes than of performance changes seen with training.

Physical demands of elite Rugby League referees: Part one — time and motion analysis

The purpose of the present study was to accurately and reliably analyse the nature of movement undertaken by National Rugby League (NRL) referees during matches played in the 2000 season. The movements of NRL referees (n=5) were analysed from videotape footage of ten games. The researchers assigned each movement to one of six defined categories (stationary, walking forwards, jogging forwards, sprinting, sideways, and backwards), and recorded number of repetitions, movement durations, and distances covered during each specific movement category. Distance was estimated using on-field markings as known points. Mean total distance per game was 6.7 km +/- 0.4 km (mean +/- standard deviation), and was made up of approximately 940 movements per game. The data showed 87% of distance was made up of a cyclic activity comprising jogging forwards, then backwards at mean running speeds of 7.2 km x h(-1) and 10.8 km x h(-1) respectively (made up of 9s bursts on average, each separated by 3s breaks). However, this cyclic activity accounted for only 47% of time, as referees were stationary 41% of time. Play was continuous for 90s +/- 71s at each phase of play, and was followed by rest of 45s +/- 36s throughout matches (work to rest ratio was 2:1). These findings suggest Rugby League refereeing is a highly intermittent activity and therefore training and fitness assessments should reflect these specific demands experienced during a game.

Intermatch Variation of Match Activity in Elite Italian Soccer Referees

The aim of this study was to examine how match activities, specifically high-intensity activity (HIA; activities performed at speeds faster than 18.1 km x h(-1)), vary among matches in elite soccer referees, because variations in match performance can potentially guide physical conditioning regimens for these referees. Fourteen Italian soccer referees were observed during 65 first-division matches a minimum of 3 and a maximum of 6 times each. For comparison, shorter matches (SM) and longer matches (LM) for each referee were identified. Mean (+/-SD) SM and LM total distances were 10,949 +/- 1,095 m and 12,303 +/- 666 m (p < 0.001), respectively. SM and LM were not different in term of duration (p > 0.05). During LM, referees spent 44% less time standing still (p < 0.01) and covered 10% more distance at low intensity than they did in SM (p < 0.05). No HIA variation was observed between SM and LM (p > 0.05). For the elite referee, work rate is increased without affecting HIA.

Níveis de aptidão física e perfil antropométrico dos árbitros de elite do Paraná credenciados pela Confederação Brasileira de Futebol (CBF)

Fitness levels and anthropometric profile of elite referees of Parana certified by the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF) The aim of this study was to evaluate the levels of physical fitness and body composition of elite referees from the Football Federation of Parana (FPF). Sample size comprises 16 referees from the FPF, all males, that belong to the national board (certified by the Brazilian Football Confederation). Fitness evaluation was applied during the 2000 Soccer Season. Mean age was 34.5±4.8 years, height was 177.8±7.4 cm, and body weight was 78.7±8.0 kg. The FIFA’s standardized test battery includes the following tests: a 50 meters and a 200 meters running test and the Cooper test. To assess body composition we measured skinfolds (subscapular, triceps, biceps, pectoral, medium axillary, abdomen, suprailiac, thigh and calf), girths (forearm, contracted arm, relaxed arm, thorax, abdomen, hip, thigh, mid-thigh and calf) and breadths (biacromial, biiliocristal, biepicondylar humerus and maleolar) (17,18,19). From anthropometrical variables, body density was determined according to Jackson and Pollock’s (20) equation and the fat percentual using Siri’s (21) equation. Fat weight (PG) was calculated multiplying the body mass (MC) by the fraction of fat percentual (% G), PG=MC(%G/100). Bone weight (PO) and residual

Bioelectrical impedance vs anthropometric determination of body composition in elite basketball referees

The use of a simple, quick and cost-effective method to determine body composition is becomingly increasingly important for professional sporting organizations. The aim of this study was to compare bioelectrical impedance (BI) and anthropometric methodologies in determining body composition of elite basketball referees. Twenty-six referees (age - 37.4 ± 9.4 yr; height - 179.0 ± 5.5 cm; mass - 82.6 ± 9.4 kg) volunteered for this study during a national pre-season tournament. Each referee was euhydrated as determined by urine specific gravity ( 0.69, p 0.69, p 0.72, p 0.69, p<0.001) despite a significantly lower body fat% compared to BI (adult mode) (2.8-10.0%, p<0.001). Regression equations for the prediction of body fat% and sum of 4-9 skinfolds from BI were determined. Bioelectrical impedance (TANITA TBF-531A scales) provides a simple, cost-effective and comparable method to anthropometry for determining body composition of elite basketball referees.

The Art of Reason versus the Exactness of Science in Elite Refereeing: Comments on Plessner and Betsch (2001).

Plessner and Betsch's (2001) investigation into officiating behavior may be representative of a shift from stress-oriented research (Anshel & Weinberg, 1995; Rainey & Winterich, 1995; Stewart & Ellery. 1996) to consideration of decision-making (Craven, 1998; Ford. Gallagher, Lacy, et al., 1999; Oudejans. Verheijen, Bakker, et al., 2000), the primary function of referees in any sport. Commendably, Plessner and Betsch have investigated the most important focus of referee performance, the application of the rules (Anshel, 1995). However, methodological weaknesses, together with a fundamental error in the attribution of causation to the findings, significantly dilute the paper's contribution to extending knowledge in this important area.

Relation Between Fitness Tests and Match Performance in Elite Italian Soccer Referees

This study examined the relation between field-test results and match performance in elite Italian soccer referees. Subjects (n = 22) were all experienced elite-level referees enrolled in the Commissione Arbitri Nazionali (CAN) and thus officiating in the Serie A and B Italian championships. Referees were, on separate occasions, tested for fitness (50-m, 200-m, and 12-minute run tests) and observed a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 3 times (n = 39) during Serie A matches. Match analyses were performed considering 11 match activity categories. Analyses of correlations were performed considering 50-m, 200-m, and 12-minute run test performances as independent variables and total distance, maximal speed distance (runs performed at speeds faster than 24 km.h-1), and high-intensity activity distance (runs performed at speeds faster than 18 km.h-1, high intensity activity [HIA]) as dependent variables. Statistical significance was set at p <or= 0.05. In the 50-m, 200-m, and 12-minute run tests the referees scored, 7.07 +/- 0.26 seconds, 29.57 +/- 1.44 seconds, and 2866 +/- 164 m, respectively. The 12-minute run test showed a moderate correlation with total match distance (r = 0.71, p < 0.05), and a low correlation with HIA and maximal speed distance (r = 0.51, p < 0.05 and r = 0.32, p < 0.05, respectively). The 200-m and 50-m sprint times were not correlated with the distance covered at maximal speed or HIA, but correlated negatively with match distance (r = -0.48, p < 0.05 and r = -0.38, p < 0.05, respectively). The results of the present study demonstrate that the 12-minute run test is a moderate predictor of match performance in elite referees and that aerobic fitness should have priority in the physical conditioning programs of the elite soccer referee.

The Relationship Between Selected Blood Lactate Thresholds and Match Performance in Elite Soccer Referees

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between selected blood lactate thresholds and competitive match activities in elite soccer referees. Eight elite-level referees (mean age, 37.6 +/- 3.4 years) were each observed during 2 Serie A matches (n = 16), and the mean of each match activity was used for analysis. Match activities were monitored using a technology similar to that reported by Ohashi and others. Blood lactate thresholds were assessed under field conditions during a progressive multistage protocol. Running velocities attained at selected blood lactate concentrations (2 and 4 mmol x L(-1), V2 and V4, respectively) were chosen because these are commonly used to assess endurance performance. Analyses of correlations were performed considering V2 and V4 values as independent variables and total distance, maximal velocity distance (runs performed at velocities faster than 24 km x h(-1)) and high-intensity activity distance (runs performed at velocities faster than 18 km x h(-1)) as dependent variables. Significance was set at p </= 0.05 for all measurements. The V2 and V4 values were 10.9 +/- 1.8 km x h(-1) and 13.6 +/- 1.4 km x h(-1) (10.5-15.0), respectively. Mean peak-lactate corresponded to 9.4 +/- 1.6 mmol x L(-1). The V4 value correlated moderately with the total distance covered during the match (r = 0.73, p < 0.05). The results demonstrate the positive relationship of the running velocity attained at a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol x L(-1) to the total amount of distance covered by a referee during a match.

Effect of carbohydrate supplementation on simulated exercise of rugby league referees

This investigation evaluated the effectiveness of supplementing eight elite rugby league referees with a 6% maltodextrin (Md) solution whilst undertaking a simulated rugby league game. The simulation was based on motion analysis of six rugby league matches. Subjects undertook two trials of repetitive 20-m shuttle activity on an indoor track. During one trial 200 ml of Md was ingested at eight time points and in the other trial a similarly tasting placebo (Pl) was administered. A single-blind, counterbalanced design was employed. The simulation involved subjects performing four, 10-min blocks of shuttle activity before a 10-min break was instigated. Three further 10-min blocks of shuttle activity were also performed before a performance test to volitional exhaustion involving 20-m shuttles at paces varying between 55 and 95% of a pre-determined [Vdot]O2 max was undertaken. Timed 15-m sprints took place during each of the 10-min blocks. The rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and blood glucose and lactate concentrations were also determined throughout. The mean number of shuttles to exhaustion was significantly greater with Md ingestion than with Pl ingestion (57 ± 19 vs. 43 ± 15; p < 0.05), while the mean 15-m sprint times were significantly shorter for the Md than the Pl condition (2.40 ± 0.09 s vs. 2.51 ± 0.14 s; p < 0.01). The mean RPE was ∼ 5.2% lower during Md than Pl ingestion, the values being significantly different (Md: 12.07 ± 0.32; Pl: 12.73 ± 0.28; p < 0.01). Maltodextrin ingestion significantly elevated blood glucose levels compared with placebo (F(1,7) = 18.07: p < 0.01), although no significant differences were apparent for blood lactate levels (F(1,7) = 4.39; p > 0.05). These results highlight the beneficial eVects of maltodextrin ingestion on work-rates of rugby league referees in a simulation of a game?s activity. The improvement may be related to higher circulating concentrations of blood glucose.