Elite Football Research Articles

The 21st Century Globetrotters’ Fans: The Case of Israeli Transnational Football Supporters’ Communities Before and During the Pandemic

In the modern era of commercialized, mediated, and global football, there is a decline in the importance of the local aspect of sports fandom. Nowadays, through television broadcasts, the Internet, and especially social networks, a fan continuously follows elite football clubs from around the world, which provide an alternative to local clubs. This has created a growing trend of football fan communities known as “transnational fans”—fans of sports clubs from other countries. Contrary to traditional definitions of fandom, the transnational fans are not close to the home stadium and therefore do not take part in the ceremonial ritual of actively supporting the club from the stands. Because of this, they are not seen as part of the club’s traditional fans. This means that transnational fans are forced to redefine the image of the football fan and to place special emphasis on an active community and loyalty to the team as markers of devotion. Contributing to the study of the psychology of fandom, this article discusses the characteristics of those fans’ communities in Israel and seeks to present an analysis of the construction of their members’ social and personal identity. To this end, an anthropological approach was adopted, which involved attending community gatherings throughout an entire gaming season and also included a series of in-depth interviews with community members. The findings of the study illustrate two main premises: the use of personal and community resources for self-determination, and the community and its place in the modern fan typology. Each theme attempts to redefine the individual’s role in the social setting and present a dynamic image of football fandom as it will take shape in coming decades.

Treating mental stress in elite footballers using a stigma-free psychological approach: the Power Threat Meaning Framework

SUMMARYThere are many pressures on elite footballers. They work in a meritocracy, where only the best are selected and play at the highest levels. From the moment they enter an academy to their retirement there is a fear of deselection and rejection. Elite players need to contend with criticisms from fans and via social media; team and management dynamics can be stressful. Fears of injury are major concerns. In addition, the players are likely to face everyday difficulties experienced by the rest of society, such as relationship, family and financial problems. There is a great deal of stigma associated with mental health problems in footballers, hence approaches are required that are destigmatising. This article presents two frameworks conceptualising stress in footballers: the Power Threat Meaning Framework, which describes stress in non-diagnostic terms; and the Yerkes–Dodson curve, which describes how stress can affect footballers’ mental and physical performances on the pitch. Both frameworks can combine to enable therapists to understand players’ distress and its impact and to guide towards appropriate treatments, as we show in a fictitious case study.

Effects of mindfulness training on resilience, self-confidence and emotion regulation of elite football players: The mediating role of locus of control

This study investigated effects of mindfulness training on resilience, self-confidence and emotion regulation of elite football players as well as mediating role of locus of control. The study recruited 34 participants which were assigned into experimental (n=17) and control (n=17) groups. Age ranged between 16 and 32years (M age = 22.6years, SD = 1.47). The experimental group received 8 weeks mindfulness acceptance commitment (MAC) intervention program, while control group received no intervention. Participants completed Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), The Connor-Davidson Resilience scale (CD-RISC), Trait Sport Confidence Inventory (TSCI), Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) and Adapted Levenson Multidimensional Locus of control scales (ALMLC). Both groups completed the questionnaire at pre-test and post-test evaluation. Descriptive data employed mean and standard deviation, while Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) of Sӧrbom's method (alternative to analysis of covariance) was used for analysis of hypothesis. Finding of the study showed that there is significant direct and indirect effect of mindfulness acceptance commitment on resilience, self-confidence and emotion regulation on elite football players. The findings further showed that there is significant difference between the pre-test scores and post-test scores of intervention group and control group. The intervention group mean scores on resilience, self-confidence and emotion regulation are higher than the control group counterparts. This shows that MAC program is effective in increasing resilience, self-confidence and emotion regulation of elite football players concurrently which in turn could improve performance and attain success.

Time-loss and recurrence of lateral ligament ankle sprains in male elite football: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

A literature search was conducted to systematically review and meta-analyze time-loss and recurrence rate of lateral ankle sprains (LAS) in male professional football players. Six electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, PEDRO, CINAHL, and Cochrane) were searched independently, separately both for time-loss and recurrence from inception until April 30, 2021. In addition, reference lists were screened manually to find additional literature. Cohort studies, case reports, case-control studies and RCT in English language of male professional football players (aged more than 16 years) for which data on time-loss or recurrence rates of LAS were available were included. A total of 13 (recurrence) and 12 (time-loss) studies met the inclusion criteria. The total sample size of the recurrence studies was 36,201 participants (44,404 overall initial injuries; 7944 initial ankle sprain [AS] injuries, 1193 recurrent AS injuries). 16,442 professional football players (4893 initial AS injuries; 748 recurrent AS injuries) were meta-analyzed. A recurrence rate of 17.11% (95% CI: 13.31-20.92%; df = 12; Q = 19.53; I2 = 38.57%) based on the random-effects model was determined. A total of 7736 participants were part of the time-loss studies (35,888 total injuries; 4848 total ankle injuries; 3370 AS injuries). Out of the 7736 participants, 7337 participants met the inclusion criteria with a total of 3346 AS injuries. The average time-loss was 15 days (weighted mean: 15.92; median: 14.95; min: 9.55; max: 52.9). We determined a priori considerable heterogeneity (CI: 18.15-22.08; df = 11; Q = 158; I2 = 93%), so that the data on time-loss are only presented descriptively. There is an average time-loss of 15 days per LAS and a recurrence rate of 17%. LAS is one of the most common types of injury with higher recurrence rates than ACL injuries (9%-12%) in professional football players. Nevertheless, the focus of research in recent years has been mostly on ACL injuries. However, the high recurrence rates and long-term consequences show the necessity for research in the field of LAS in elite football. Yet, heterogeneous data lead to difficulties concerning the aspect of comparability.

Interchangeability of optical tracking technologies: potential overestimation of the sprint running load demands in the English Premier League

ABSTRACT Purpose The purpose of this study was to assess the agreement between match-derived running load outputs; total distance (TD), high-speed running (HSR) and sprint distance (SPR) obtained by two optical tracking systems. Methods Data were collected from 31 elite footballers from the first team and under-21 squads of an English Premier League (EPL) football club across three competitive matches. One EPL game (game 2) and one under-21 Premier League game (game 3) were played at the team’s home stadium and one EPL game (game 1) at an away venue. All matches were tracked concomitantly using eight colour cameras sampling at 10 Hz (PROZONE®) and six high-definition motion cameras sampling at 25 Hz (TRACAB®). Results TD displayed a perfect (r = 0.99) correlation while HSR and SPR displayed very large (r = 0.81 and r = 0.73) correlations between TRACAB® and PROZONE®. Mean biases were 5% for TD, −3% for HSR and 61% for SPR. Between games, mean biases for TD were 6% for game 1, and 5% for game 2 and game 3. For HSR, 9% for game 1, −5% for game 2 and 6% for game 3 and for SPR, 31% for game 1, 71% for game 2 and 84% for game 3. Conclusion TD and HSR can be interchanged between PROZONE® and TRACAB®, to allow accurate interpretation between the two optical systems. PROZONE® overestimated SPR compared to the TRACAB®, with the magnitude of difference considered meaningful, altering interpretation of historical match outputs, sprint volume trends in the EPL and forecasts of the modern game.

Biological Maturation Predicts Dynamic Balance and Lower Limb Power in Young Football Players.

Simple SummaryThis study highlighted the importance of the relationship between dynamic balance and power of lower extremities in young male elite football players. Moreover, it revealed that biological status explains, to a large extent, jump performance and, to a lesser extent, dynamic balance in the studied group. The results of this study suggest that football academies, sport practitioners, and researchers should consider biological maturation when assessing athletic performance, designing rehabilitation, and strengthening training for sports injury analysis and prevention.Biological maturation has an increasingly important role in youth sports. The aim of the study was to evaluate the relationship between dynamic balance and lower limb power and biological maturation in young football players. Seventy-two healthy, young male elite football players (age: 10 ± 2) participated in the study. Dynamic balance was assessed using a modified Star Excursion Balance Test (mSEBT). Power of the lower limbs was examined by a Countermovement Jump test (CMJ) and Single Leg Hop for Distance (SLHD). Furthermore, anthropometry and biological maturation (age, peak height velocity, and maturity offset) were assessed. There was a strong positive correlation between vertical jump (r = 0.75), distance long jump (r = 0.84), and biological maturation. A moderate positive correlation was found between dynamic balance (mSEBT COM, PL, and PM) and maturity offset. There was a significant association between mSEBT, CMJ, and SLHD (p < 0.05). Moreover, maturity offset explained 75% of vertical jump and 74% of distance long jump performance, respectively, and 12% of dynamic balance. Biological maturation should be considered when assessing athletic performance, establishing rehabilitation, and sports training in youth football players.

WHAT TACTICAL DEFENSIVE BEHAVIORS WOULD HELP BRAZIL STOP GERMANY IN THE 7 TO 1?

ABSTRACT The purpose of this research was to verify which tactical behaviors can predict defensive efficiency among elite football players. The sample was composed of 533 defensive sequences from national teams that were semifinalists in the FIFA World Cup 2014. An ad-hoc instrument was built with the variables: “ball recovery zone”, “defensive pressure”, “removing depth”, “defensive time spent”, “number of occupied corridors”, “number of fouls committed”, and “number of times fouled”. The tactical sequences were analyzed using Match Vision Studio Premium software. Multinomial logistic regression was applied to predict the chances of success and failure of collective defensive actions (P &lt; 0.05). Recovering the ball in the defensive zone of the field had a 19-times better chance of goal completion compared to recovering the ball in the middle offensive zone (OR = 19.39; P &lt; 0.01). On the other hand, removing defensive depth resulted in a decrease of 71% in the chances of completing a goal (OR = 0.29; P &lt; 0.01). Moreover, every foul committed increased the chances of failure in the defensive phase (OR = 5.39; P &lt; 0.01). Teams that recovered the ball far from their own goals and coordinated their last defensive line to leave attackers in an offside position had success in getting the ball back. Level of Evidence IV; Case series.

Assessing the prevalence, sources and selective antecedents of organizational stressors among elite football players and coaches in the Ghana premier league: Empirical evidence for applied practice.

Globally, job-related stress has been classified as a health epidemic which is common among many individuals across diverse populations. Despite this established knowledge, research has primarily focused on the general population and among health workers. Therefore, understanding stress related experiences in the context of professional sport would help design appropriate stress management interventions for effective coping. The overarching aim of this research was to assess occupational stress related experiences among players and coaches in the Ghana premier league. The study sought to assess: (1) the prevalence and sources of stressors among players and coaches, and (2) how age and years of experience influenced the stressors they experienced. Using a census survey, 44 premier league coaches and 424 players who were officially registered by 17 premier league clubs completed the intensity dimension of the Organizational Stressor Indicator for Sport Performers which has 5 subscales namely: Goals and Development, Logistics and Operations, Team and Culture, Coaching and Selection. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviation) and multivariate analysis of variance were used to analyze the data. The results revealed that stressors were prevalent among football players and coaches, with these being significantly more dominant among coaches, p < 0.001. Selection was identified as the most predominant stressor for coaches (i.e., selecting players to play) and players (i.e., being selected). Age and experience were found not to be significant predictors of stressors for players and coaches in Ghana. Findings suggest that generally, stressors are common among football players and coaches, especially on issues related to selection. Sport psychologists and team managers in the various premier league clubs should incorporate appropriate interventions (e.g., stress inoculation training) aimed at providing adequate psychological support to promote players' and coaches' wellbeing.

Deciphering the offensive process in women's elite football: A multivariate study

Over the last few years, there has been considerable increase in scientific knowledge about women's football. However, the tactical and tactical-strategic aspects have not yet been sufficiently covered in scientific literature. Therefore, this work proposed the following aims: To describe how the offensive phase is produced in women's football, to identify the significant statistical criteria that may be modulating success in attack, and finally to propose different predictive success models, with the ultimate aim of passing this knowledge on to the applied field. The observational methodology was used, one of the most appropriate methodologies for the analysis of motor behaviors in sport. The units of analysis collected and analyzed were 6063 attacks carried out during the FIFA Women's World Cup Canada 2015 and France 2019. The available results demonstrate that, on the one hand, offensive team actions are ineffective (almost 70% finish unsuccessfully), but criteria such as the start form of the attack, zone of ball possession, partial match result, or ball possession time are statistically significant criteria that modulate attack success (goal, shot or pass into the area). Lastly, the multivariate results allow us to propose a theoretical model, passing the probability of success from 31% in the absence of a model, to a theoretical auction probability of 52.6%, based on fast attacks with the intervention of few players, and with possession zone in the opposite field. These results could be directly transferred to the practical field where trainers and technical bodies can put this information into practice in training sessions or matches.

"It's My Country I'm Playing for"-A Biographical Study on National Identity Development of Youth Elite Football Players With Migrant Background.

Sport represents a prominent topic for public and scientific debates on national identity. Looking at Germany, public discourses on national belonging have primarily focused on national elite football and on German-born international football players with Turkish background. Representing the biggest ethnic community in Germany and being highly represented in German youth elite football, athletes with Turkish background are prime examples for the complexity and ambiguity of identity formations in modern immigration countries in general and in youth elite football in particular. Current research has particularly focused on national identity formations of (youth) elite players with migrant background. However, there is a lack of studies that address the process of national identity development in youth elite sport. For that reason, the study aimed to explore stories of national identity development from the perspective of youth football players with Turkish background in German youth elite football. By conducting 10 expert interviews and biographical mappings, we identified specific types, strands, and trajectories of national identity development. Overall, we identified three types of narratives on national identity development: “going with the nomination(s),” “reconsidering national belonging,” and “adding up chances”. Our findings illustrate that national identity development in youth elite sport is particularly shaped by youth elite sport and the national team question. Hence, the stories indicate that international careers not necessarily foster national identification with a nation but can also reduce feelings of national belonging sustainably.

French amateur football clubs’ finance and revenue volatility: the determinants of demand shocks

ABSTRACT The article addresses financial troubles in French amateur football clubs and their origins. Previous literature has demonstrated that – in particular in French football – club bankruptcies are triggered by demand shocks. The present research intends highlighting the determinants of demand shocks on those clubs playing French amateur football top two tiers with a longitudinal analysis (2009/2010-2019/2020). Various exogenous elements that influence club demand (i.e. revenues) are taken on board, namely, macroeconomic variables, such as the variation of GDP growth rate between two football seasons, a dummy for the Covid-19 sanitary crisis, and a sport dummy for the effect of the French national team winning the 2018 male football World Cup. The latter is used to check a potential trickle-down effect on amateur elite football. None of these variables do explain demand shocks except if the heterogeneity of clubs’ economic models is taken into account. The determinants of shock demands appear to be clubs’ strategic orientations (towards win maximization vs. a stable economic organization).

(Un)Sustainable Human Resource Management in Brazilian Football? Empirical Evidence on Coaching Recruitment and Dismissal

A superficial attitude in football insists on blaming head coaches when games are lost. Controversially, however, whereas decision-makers in professional football clubs claim to seek successful outcomes on the pitch, they often favor questionable judgements that affect their organizational sustainability by recycling coaches without substantial analyses. Albeit scholars have stressed potential causes and consequences of coaching turnovers, specific knowledge is needed around the recruitment and dismissal steps faced by professional coaches, and to what extent their experiences mirror the theoretical background of human resource management in sport. This study poses the following research question: how do football clubs actually handle coaching recruitment and dismissal processes? Qualitative, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 26 elite coaches from Brazil, who had collectively been employed by all 43 clubs that participated in the Brasileirão from 2003 to 2020. Based on a deductive-inductive approach, the content analysis framed two categories (recruitment and dismissal stages) with three main themes (methods, decision-makers, and decision-making), which were sustained by specific subthemes. The results suggest how the recruitment, assessment, and replacement of head coaches neglect both a strategic and a sustainable rationale towards human resource management in Brazil’s elite football.

Offensive Difference Styles and Technical Situational Variables Between European and South American Elite Football Leagues

We aimed to compare teams’ attack styles in Europe and South America elite football in the two most valued domestic leagues in both continents (Spanish La Liga &amp; English Premier League in Europe, and Argentinian Superliga &amp; Brazilian Série A in South America). For this purpose, we used a sample of 84 teams and 3,780 cases in 1,214 games. Using an observational tool, we analyzed performance indicators (goals, shots, dribbles, and passes) and attack situations. Effect size (ES) and non-clinical magnitude-based inference (MBI) were used to evaluate uncertainty. Results revealed that European teams scored more goals per game related to fast (ES = 0.35; likely MBI) and positional attack (ES = 0.36; likely MBI). In addition, teams from the European leagues spent more time playing in the opposition third zone of the pitch, performed a higher number of assists (ES = 0.38; likely MBI) and through-ball assists (ES = 0.46; likely MBI) than South American ones. Finally, South American teams made higher numbers of shots out of the box (ES = 1.52, almost certain MBI) and off-target shots (ES = 1.08; almost certain MBI), and they also spent more time playing in the middle third zone (ES = 1.65; almost certain MBI). No differences were identified in set-pieces goals, length passing, and aerial duels. These findings may provide information regarding attack style profiles from each continent league. Also, it could be highly beneficial for coaches to be able to continuously design the specific training situations of the offensive process.

Effects on collective behaviour and locomotor and neuromuscular response in young players by varying the length of the pitch in 11-a-side football

The aim of this study was to describe the effects on collective behaviour and the physical response of young elite football players (Under 15) in the same 11 versus 11 task in three different pitch lengths (100, 75 and 50 m, LSG100, LSG75 and LSG50, respectively), keeping the width constant (60 m). The intra-team variables were: convex hull (CH), stretch index (SI), width (W), length (L) and length/width (L/W). The inter-team variables were calculated by using the 20 outfield players: CH2, W2, L2, L/W2 and DC (distance between centroids). The physical variables were: maximum speed (Vmax), number of accelerations (Acc) and decelerations (Dec) and total distance (TD). The results showed small (LSG100 &gt; LSG75) and moderate–long differences (LSG100 &gt; LSG50) for CH, SI and L. There was a moderate increase in DC and W2 (LSG50 &gt; LSG75) and a moderate decrease in SI2, CH2, SI, L and CH (LSG75 &gt; LSG50). The entropy was higher in SSG50 &gt; LSG75 &gt; LSG100. On a conditional level, the values showed differences between the three formats studied, showing more similarities between LSG50 and LSG100 than with LSG75. The main conclusion of the study was that the variation in the dimensions of the pitch caused a non-linear variation in the behavioural and conditional response in teams and players.

Influence of pre-induced mental fatigue on tactical behaviour and performance among young elite football players

ABSTRACT Elite athletes are reportedly more resistant to mental fatigue and are less negatively influenced by pre-induced mental fatigue. However, such evidence has not been verified in the context of open sports, such as football. This study investigated the effects of pre-induced mental fatigue on tactical behaviour and performance among Brazilian male elite football players under 17 years (n = 18). The System of Tactical Assessment in Soccer (FUT-SAT) was utilised to assess the players’ tactical behaviour and performance. A [stratified] sample of players was assessed, with and without pre-induced mental fatigue. The Stroop test was used to induce mental fatigue. The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to verify the distribution of the data, and the paired t and Wilcoxon statistical tests were conducted to compare the paired groups of players. The results showed that players decreased the number of actions in the offensive and defensive phases under the condition of pre-induced mental fatigue. Contrarily, these players increased the efficiency of their actions and consequently improved their tactical performance. This probably occurred because players were more selective in their actions and focused more on the most relevant actions to solve problems when in play. It was concluded that young players could adapt their tactical actions, whether offensive or defensive, under the conditions of pre-induced mental fatigue.

Perturbation profile of elite football – a cross-sectional analysis of the goals and goal scoring opportunities immediately before and after goal scoring of the 1st German Bundesliga

ABSTRACT The sport of football cannot be represented holistically with a quantitative approach. The basis for this analysis was the construct of dynamic system theory. Based on the method of systematic game observation, a perturbation (= triggers that transfer a system into a state of instability) sign system was made, distinguishing between offensive (oP) and defensive perturbations (dP). The subject of the study was goal critical situations five minutes before and after goal scoring. The present study is a partial survey of the 1st Bundesliga season 2019/20, insofar as game Days 1.-17. (n = 153 games) were evaluated by video according to two independent raters. The average number of perturbations required to score a goal was 1.69 perturbations (on average 1.52 oP & 0.17 dP), while an average of 1.30 perturbations (on average 1.15 oP & 0.15 dP) was sufficient to create a goal scoring opportunity. The group technical tactical offensive perturbation low pass revealed the largest proportion of all perturbations, at 28%. Therefore, a game plan should be designed to create superior numbers close to the ball to avoid the loss of stability.

Comparing Accuracy of the Final Height Prediction Models for Elite Football Players and Developing a New Model.

This study aimed to assess the accuracy of previously developed height prediction models in male Japanese football players and create new height prediction models. The participants were elite academy male football players. We collected current height, parent's height, calendar age and bone age in 6th grade of primary school and obtained actual final height at 20 to 28 years old. We compared the accuracy of two conventional models for predicting final height. These used current height, calendar age and either bone age (Model 1) or parental height (Model 2). We then developed a new model to optimize the coefficients of Model 1 (Model 3). The final model added parental height to Model 3 and optimized the coefficients (Model 4). Prediction accuracy was higher for Model 2 (R = 0.52, P < 0.001) than Model 1 (p = 0.33, P < 0.001). The equation of Model 3 was final height = 0.63229313×actual measured height-8.2541327×calendar age-2.3009853×bone age (TW2)+206.627184. The R-square was 0.49 (P < 0.0001). The equation of Model 4 was final height = 0.32156081×actual measured height - 4.6652063×calendar age+0.41903909×father's height+0.34952508×mother's height-0.740469×bone age(TW2)+62.1007751. The R-square was 0.61 (P < 0.0001). In the two previous conventional models, a formula using parental height had better predictive accuracy. We developed a new height prediction model using current height, calendar age, father's and mother's height and bone age.

The Sleep Behaviors of Elite Australian Rules Footballers Before and After Games During an Entire Season.

Most athletes sleep poorly around competition. The aim of this study was to examine sleep before/after games during an entire season in elite Australian Rules footballers (N = 37) from the same team. Sleep was monitored using activity monitors for 4 consecutive nights (beginning 2 nights before games) during 19 rounds of a season. Differences in sleep on the nights before/after games, and differences in sleep before/after games as a function of game time (day vs evening), location (local vs interstate), and outcome (win vs loss), were examined using linear mixed effects models. Players fell asleep earlier (+1.9h; P < .001), and woke up later (+1h; P < .001) on the night before games compared with the night of games. Players obtained less sleep on the night of games than on the night before games (5.2h vs 7.7h; P < .001), and this reduction was exacerbated when games were played in the evening-after evening games, players obtained approximately 40 minutes less sleep than after day games (P < .001). Sleep duration on the nights before and after games was not affected by game location or game outcome, but players had later sleep onset (P < .001) and offset times (P < .001) on most nights when sleeping away from home. Elite footballers obtain good sleep on the night before games but obtain approximately 30% less sleep on the night of games. Given the role of sleep in recovery, it will be important to determine whether a reduction in sleep duration of this magnitude impairs recovery on the days following games.

Return to sport and beyond following intramuscular tendon hamstring injury: A case report of an English Premier League football player

BackgroundHamstring strain injuries are the most common type of injury in elite football and are associated with a high risk of reinjury, particularly those involving the intramuscular tendon (IMT). Limited information is available regarding the rehabilitation and return to sport (RTS) processes following such injuries. This case study describes the clinical presentation of an elite football player following IMT hamstring injury, their on- and off-pitch rehabilitation alongside performance monitoring throughout RTS and beyond. Case scenarioAn elite football player suffered a grade 2c hamstring injury during an English Premier League (EPL) match. The player underwent early post-injury management, alongside progressive off-pitch physical preparation. The ‘control-chaos continuum’ was used as a framework for on-pitch rehabilitation to prepare the player for a return to full team training and competition. Objective and subjective markers of the player's response to progressive on- and off-pitch loading were monitored throughout RTS and beyond. OutcomesThe player returned to on-pitch rehabilitation after 11 days, to full team training having achieved weekly pre-injury chronic running load outputs after 35 days and played in the EPL 40 days post-injury. The player did not suffer reinjury for the rest of the EPL season. ConclusionAn understanding the unique structural and mechanical properties of the IMT, alongside expected RTS timeframes are important to inform rehabilitation and decision-making processes post-injury. Performance and frequent load-response monitoring throughout RTS and beyond, in conjunction with practitioner experience and effective communication are critical in facilitating effective RTS and reduce risk of reinjury following IMT injury.

Salivary immunity of elite collegiate American football players infected with SARS-CoV-2 normalizes following isolation

The impact of COVID-19 on systemic immunity in the general population has been well characterized, however the short-term effects of COVID-19 infection on innate salivary immunity in elite-level athletes are unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to determine whether elite college football athletes had altered salivary immunity following the CDC-recommended isolation post-SARS-CoV-2 infection. Salivary samples were obtained from fourteen elite football players who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 (n = 14), immediately after CDC-recommended isolation (average days = 14 ± 2 days) and fifteen controls who remained uninfected with SARS-CoV-2. Biomarkers of innate salivary immunity (sIgA and alpha-amylase), antimicrobial proteins (AMPs, i.e., HNP1-3, lactoferrin, LL-37) and lung inflammation (SPA, SPLI, and Neutrophil Elastase-alpha-1-antitrypsin complex) were measured. Independent student t-tests were used to determine changes in biomarkers between groups. Although all AMP levels were within normal range, Human Neutrophil Defensin 1–3 concentrations and secretion rates were higher in SARS-CoV-2+ compared to SARS-CoV-2–. This suggests that the CDC-recommended isolation period is sufficient to ensure that athletes’ salivary immunity is not compromised upon return to sports, and athletes post-COVID-19 infection do not appear to be at greater risk for secondary infection than those with no history of COVID-19.