Elite Football Research Articles

Effect of match location on the playing style of teams coached by ‘Pep’ Guardiola

IntroductionAnalysis in football seeks to find the performance factors that bring teams closer to success.MethodsThis study aims to analyze the playing styles of two teams managed by Pep Guardiola (F.C. Barcelona and Manchester City) based on match location (home or away). Two methods of analysis were used: descriptive statistics through chi-square tests to evaluate game characteristics and the polar coordinates technique to analyze the relationships between the different lines of each team (goalkeeper, defenders, midfielders, and forwards).ResultsThe results showed that F.C. Barcelona maintained a consistent playing style regardless of location, exhibiting significant differences only in actions that involved shots or header (p = 0.035), with better performance at home. In contrast, Manchester City displayed significantly different performance in action success (p < 0.001), level of play elaboration (p = 0.004), density (p = 0.033), duration (p = 0.036), and actions that included a shot (p = 0.001) depending on the location. Additionally, qualitative analyses revealed differences in the relationships among the team lines according to match location, with Manchester City displaying more variability in these interactions than F.C. Barcelona.DiscussionThe study concludes that although Guardiola applies a consistent set of strategies, match location has a greater influence on Manchester City’s performance, suggesting that this team adjusts its playing style on the basis of contextual conditions. These findings highlight the importance of considering factors such as location when preparing tactics to increase the probability of success in elite football.

Testing in Football: A Narrative Review

Football clubs regularly test and monitor players, with different approaches reflecting player age and competitive level. This narrative review aims to summarise justifications for testing and commonly used testing protocols. We also aim to discuss the validity and reliability of specific tests used to assess football players and provide a holistic overview of protocols currently used in football or those demonstrating potential utility. The PubMed, SportDiscus, and Google Scholar databases were screened for relevant articles from inception to September 2024. Articles that met our inclusion criteria documented tests for several purposes, including talent identification or the assessment of growth/maturation, physiological capacity, sport-specific skill, health status, monitoring fatigue/recovery, training adaptation, and injury risk factors. We provide information on specific tests of anthropometry, physical capacity, biochemical markers, psychological indices, injury risk screening, sport-specific skills, and genetic profile and highlight where certain tests may require further evidence to support their use. The available evidence suggests that test selection and implementation are influenced by financial resources, coach perceptions, and playing schedules. The ability to conduct field-based testing at low cost and to test multiple players simultaneously appear to be key drivers of test development and implementation among practitioners working in elite football environments.

How Do Technical and Tactical Demands of Football Matches Affect the Physical Performance of Elite Football Referees? Exploring the Role of Experience.

Martinez-Torremocha, G, Alonso-Callejo, A, Garcia-Unanue, J, Gallardo, L, Sanchez-Sanchez, J, and Felipe, JL. How do technical and tactical demands of football matches impact the physical performance of elite football referees? Exploring the role of experience. J Strength Cond Res 38(11): e664-e669, 2024-This study aimed to analyze whether the physical demands on elite football referees during matches are influenced by both the physical intensity of the game and the technical-tactical context, to assess the impact of elite experience on the physical demands of referees, and to compare the physical performance of the referees with the performance of the players divided by positions in each match analyzed. Physical demands were recorded on 20 Spanish male football referees during the 2020/21, 2021/22, and 2022/23 seasons over a total of 73 official matches, using Global Positioning Systems for physical demands (total distance [TD], high-speed running [HSR], sprint, and high-intensity acceleration [HI ACC] and deceleration) and WyScout for technical-tactical actions (ball circulation, possession, shot, passes, total turnovers, quick turnovers, and long passes). Referees showed lower values for all variables except in TD (p < 0.05). No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found in referees' physical demands based on experience. Low-experience referees correlated HSR and sprint distances with high-intensity decelerations distances in matches. Medium-experience referees linked HSR, sprinting, and HI ACC distances with greater sprint distances in matches. High-experience referees correlated HSR distance with HSR, sprint, and HI ACC distances match demands. Low-experience referees positively correlated HSR and sprint distances with ball circulation, passes, quick turnovers, and forward passes. In conclusion, referees' experience influenced the adaptation of their physical demands to the technical-tactical and physical factors of competitive matches. This information will help professionals working with referees to develop training programs that better prepare referees for specific challenges.

Out of the shadows into the limelight: the impact of commercialization on the Swedish men’s elite football coach from the 1960s until today

Until the 1960s, the elite coach was shadowed by elected representatives and amateur players. Since then, the professionalization process has transferred power to the coaches. As this process is intertwined with the commercialization of sport, the aim of this article is to advance the understanding of the impact of commercialization on the elite coach in a Scandinavian context. Through the lens of governmentality, and the Swedish men’s elite football coach as the example, the study shows how commercialization has impacted the coach’s power and responsibilities in the club, the relationships with the athletes, and with external stakeholders. The study draws on the board minutes and annual reports of a football club, education material from the Swedish coach education programme, and interviews with six former coaches. The results show that the governmentality of commercialization has placed the coach in the limelight, that they are responsible for guiding the players’ actions to enhance their economic value, and are the club’s outward face to convince external stakeholders to invest in football.

Science in the clutches of elite sports: hard science, relational skills and power in Norwegian sports coaching

In this article, we examine the professionalization coaching in Norway, focusing on the years between 1990 and 2020. During this period, Norway started to perform comparatively well in international elite sport. Data are drawn from two relatively separate fields of Norwegian elite sport, namely elite football for men and the Norwegian organization for elite sports’ (Olympiatoppen) programme for future elite sport coaches. In our analysis, we rely on two sets of concepts: Giddens’ notion of reflexivity in late modern society, and Foucault’s concept of pastoral power. When concepts and methods from both the natural and the social sciences enter the clutches of elite sport, academic perspectives transform into recipes that aim to help athletes achieve more. The more the coach knows about the athlete, the better she can plan for training sessions. On the other hand, it creates a risk of manipulation and abuse of power.

The professionalization of the role of the coach: transforming the last bastion of the Scandinavian welfare-sport model

Coaching in Scandinavia is characterized by tensions between voluntary ideals and increased demands for professionalization. This paper examines the origins and content of such demands, how voluntary run and governed football clubs translate them into practices, and the impact of professionalization on the coach role. Within an organizational perspective, our analysis is framed by institutional theory and a translation perspective and draw on data from interviews with representatives of Norwegian football clubs. The results show how demands for professionalization are translated into (new) practices in football clubs and lead to (more) professionalization of the coach role. In a ‘top-down’ trajectory, professionalization is characterized by bureaucratization driven by a need to satisfy the Norwegian Football Federation and Norwegian Elite Football. In a ‘bottom-up’ trajectory, professionalization is characterized by individualization driven by pressures from members to tailor-make the club’s service offer. In a ‘trickle-sideways’ trajectory, professionalization is characterized by marketization driven by the establishment of private football academies that exert pressure on football clubs to adapt to a more customer-oriented membership base. In conclusion, this examination highlights the multidimensional character of the professionalization of the coach role and emphasizes the need for further research on the broader ramifications of professionalization in contexts characterized by voluntary ideals.

Right-sided exercise-induced cardiac remodelling is more pronounced in white than in black elite football players

Abstract Background Most echocardiography studies investigating exercise-induced cardiac remodelling (EICR) in athletes have predominantly focused on left ventricular end-diastolic volume (LVEDV) and wall thickness. Moreover, studies investigating right-sided EICR in individuals with different ethnic backgrounds are scarce, but are needed to assist clinicians in the differentiation between EICR and pathology. Purpose To investigate differences in right-sided EICR between Caucasian (white) and Sub-Saharan (black) male elite football players. Methods We included all male elite football players with echocardiography data from the Evaluation of Lifetime participation in Intensive Top-level sports and Exercise (ELITE) cohort. ELITE collects data from standardised cardiovascular screenings of elite level athletes in the Netherlands, including (but not limited to) standardised resting transthoracic echocardiograms (TTE). Athletes with known cardiovascular disease were excluded. Our primary metrics of interest were right ventricular end-diastolic diameter (RVEDD), maximal dimension of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and right atrial (RA) reservoir, conduit and contractile strain (measured using 2D-Speckle tracking). Secondary metrics of interest included LV ejection fraction (LVEF), LV mass index (LVMi) and left atrial reservoir strain. All metrics of interest were stratified by ethnicity, and indexed for body surface area (BSA) if appropriate. Results A total of 74 elite football players were included (black n = 37; white n = 37), with similar age (18 [2.0] vs 19 [3.0], p = 0.013) and BSA (2 [0.1] vs 2 [0.2] m2, p = 0.268) across ethnicities. There were no differences in indexed LA (35 [10.0] vs 33 [10.0] ml/m2, p = 0.417) and RA volumes (27 [7.4] vs 27 [6.6] ml/m2,p = 0.953). However, black athletes demonstrated smaller max IVC (18 [5.0] vs 25 [5.0] cm, p = &amp;lt;0.001) and RVEDD (40 [2.0] vs 43 [6.0] mm,p = 0.001). Moreover, black athletes demonstrated less RA deformation in the reservoir (31 [8.0] vs 36 [8.0] %, p = 0.003) and contractile phases (9 [4.0] vs 11 [4.0] %, p = 0.017) than white athletes. There were no ethnic-specific differences in RA conduit strain (23 [7.0] vs 25 [6.0] %, p = 0.076). We found no statistically significant differences in LVEF (55 [6.0] vs 55 [6.0] %, p = 0.914), LVMi (92 [15.0] vs 88 [26.8] g/m2, p = 0.236) or LA reservoir strain (32 [7.0] vs 33 [7.0] %, p = 0.157) in black vs white athletes. Conclusion Male elite football players with a Sub-Saharan ethnic background demonstrate less pronounced right-sided EICR than athletes with a Caucasian ethnic background. Our findings emphasize the need for ethnic-specific reference ranges for right-sided EICR to aid in the differentiation between EICR and pathology.

The Impact of a Congested Match Schedule (Due to the COVID-19 Lockdown) on Creatine Kinase (CK) in Elite Football Players Using GPS Tracking Technology.

The aim was to analyse the consequences of a congested schedule (due to the COVID-19 lockdown) on creatine kinase (CK) in elite football players using GPS tracking technology. A total of 17 elite football players were monitored in training and competition with a global positioning system. Variables including total distance, high-intensity distance, and distance acceleration and deceleration were analysed. Different measurements of serum creatine kinase (CK) concentration were performed on match day (MD) and at 24 h (MD+1), 48 h (MD+2), and 72 h (MD+3) after each match to study the muscle damage of each individual player caused during the match. The results showed a significant increase in physical demands in training (in relative terms regarding the match) at MD+3 compared to MD+1 and MD+2. Furthermore, at +72 h, CK decreases to a value almost the same as that before MD. On the other hand, the players with lower demands for high-intensity actions in the match showed a higher reduction in the concentration of CK at MD+3 compared to MD+1 and MD+2 (p < 0.05). It became evident that players with high-intensity demand and a high number of accelerations and decelerations need more time to assimilate the match load and can remain in a state of muscle fatigue for up to 3 days. In addition, a congested schedule can lead to a state of chronic fatigue in elite football players, limiting physical performance and possibly increasing the potential risk of injury for football players.

Machine Learning Based Assessment of Elite Football Players Based on Anthropometric and Motor Fitness Parameters with Regard to their Playing Positions

Sports players strive to be the epitome of human excellence, pushing the barrier of skill and execution with training, focus and direction, amplified by regular training and practice. This could be attributed to various factors such as response to stimuli, physical factors, psychological factors etc. The present study incorporated the prediction of the most suited playing position of elite male football players using machine learning approaches based on their Anthropometric Parameters (AP–11 parameters) and Motor Fitness Parameters (MFP–7 parameters). Of the features analysed, results identified the position indicative nature of some parameters among6 AP (Height, Body Mass Index, Basal Metabolic Rate, Fat %, Thigh Circumference, Calf circumference) and 4 MFP (120 m, 80 m, 40 m dash and T-Test) by Spearman’s Rank Correlation Test. Further, the prediction of ideal playing position was achieved using various classifiers such as Support Vector Machine (SVM), SVM with over sampled data, SVM with hyperparameter tuning, SVM with variable scaling and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XG Boost). Among these, the highest classification accuracy and f1-score at 92% and 0.92 respectively were obtained for XG Boost Classifier which portrayed a faster performance as compared to the other approaches. The present study could be useful in professional sports training and rehabilitation so as to help the players perform better in the football game.

An investigation on main effects and interactions of relative age effects and playing position in female elite football in Germany.

Athlete age-grouping and age-banding has been shown to impact sport participation and athlete development. The current study examined the impact of within-year (WYEs) and between-year effects (BYEs), and their interactions with playing position, on female participation in elite German football. The sample of 1,378 German first-league players revealed expected participation inequities within-year with relatively older players being over-represented and younger players being under-represented. From a between-year perspective there were no participation differences. The interaction of WYEs and BYEs revealed an over-representation of odd-year players in Q1, and Q2 in even years. With respect to the interaction between year effects and playing position, for WYEs the expected effect was present for goalkeepers and defenders, while there was no significant interaction for BYEs. Overall, the results offer insight regarding the impact of system structure on participation, and highlight unique characteristics associated with playing positions.

Match workload and international travel associated with (ACL) injuries in professional women's football.

Women's football has grown in popularity, competitiveness and professionalism, increasing the demands placed on players and their injury risk. This study aimed to identify differences in the match workload and international travel between injured and non-injured professional women's footballers. The study was conducted as an observational, retrospective, case-control study over two football seasons (2021/2022 and 2022/2023) in four top-tier European women's football leagues. Fifty-eight professional women football players (81 injuries) formed the injury group and were matched with 81 elite women football players (162 non-injuries), from the same league, to form the control group. For each injury, cumulative match workload (minutes played, appearances, days between matches, rest) and international travel (distances, time, time zones crossed) were calculated over a 28-day period preceding the injury, for both the injured players and matched controls. The injured group had a higher number of instances of less than 5days between matches compared to the controls (p=0.03, effect size=0.3, small). The anterior cruciate ligament injury group made more appearances (p=0.09, effect size=0.8, moderate), had more instances of less than 5days between matches (p=0.09, effect size=0.8, moderate) and had less rest time (p=0.12, effect size=0.8, moderate) than the control group. No meaningful differences were observed between the hamstring injury group and the control group. These findings underscore the importance of careful consideration when developing match fixture schedules in elite women's football, particularly concerning the number of matches scheduled in a short period. Strategies to increase rest and recovery are recommended to safeguard players against injuries.

Differences in Diet Assessment and Body Composition among Young Spanish Elite Footballers: Morning Training vs. Evening Training

The training schedule is a factor that influences sports performance optimization. In a sport like soccer, there is often significant disparity in training schedules among different teams within the same club, without considering whether this may affect players’ performance. The aim of this study was to describe differences in nutrient intake and body composition in elite youth soccer players from the Spanish league with different training schedules (morning and evening). A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine differences in anthropometric variables and dietary assessment in a sample of Spanish young soccer players. A total of 41 players participated in this study. After comparing the groups according to their training schedule, no differences were observed in body composition between both groups; the evening-night training group showed higher consumption of lipids and saturated fats. In summary, more experimental studies are needed to determine the effects on various health and performance parameters of different training schedules in young population.

The role of transformational leadership in the associations between coach-athlete relationship and team resilience: A study on elite football players

This study explores the relationship between the quality of coach-athlete relationships, transformational leadership style, and team resilience in elite football players. The coach-athlete relationship is an essential factor affecting many performance-related properties of athletes, such as mental health, psychological needs, motivation, and resilience. The study examines how the quality of coach-athlete relationships explains the team resilience feature through transformational leadership. The research group includes 210 elite players from the Super League, First League, Second League, and Third Leagues of the Turkish Football Federation (TFF) in the 2020–2021 football season. The study used descriptive and relational models to explore the current state of the dependent and independent variables and examine their relationships. The findings revealed insights into the mediating role of the coach’s transformational leadership qualities, highlighting how the quality of coach-athlete relationships impacts team resilience.

Do they really return to early? Investigating the causal effect of rehab time on injury risk after return to play in elite football

In elite football, injury risk is considerable. Consequently, optimal rehabilitation and an adequate time point of return-to-play (RTP) are crucial. The elevated injury risk in the weeks after RTP (e.g. Orchard &amp; Best, 2002; Wangensteen et al., 2016) and the time course of biological healing processes (Orchard &amp; Best, 2002) nourished the speculation that players generally return to early. While the previously reported negative association between rehab time and injury risk after RTP (e.g. Beischer et al., 2020; Della Villa et al., 2021; Orchard &amp; Best, 2002) points in the same direction, the truism “Correlation does not imply causation.” must be considered. To the best of our knowledge, the causal effect of rehab time on injury risk has not been investigated so far. This work aims to contribute towards closing this gap in knowledge. Specifically, to scrutinize if a reduction in injury risk may be expected when RTP is delayed. Previous time-loss injuries and match exposures of players currently playing in the European top leagues (Germany, Austria, France, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, United Kingdom) were collected from public sources and episodes (index injury-RTP-subsequent injury) constructed. Data analysis was conducted in R. Considering the time dependence of the excess injury risk after RTP, we analyzed injury occurrence after RTP within a fixed time frame (28 days). A robust scaling approach was used for making rehab time comparable between index injury diagnoses. Exposure within the 28-day period was adjusted for eventual time loss due to subsequent injury. The association between rehab time and injury was analyzed using logistic regression. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated from regression coefficients and adjusted for baseline probability to avoid overestimation of relative risk (RR). Two approaches were used to delineate a potential causal effect: (a) sensitivity analysis for the putative confounder (using Cornfield’s inequality) and (b) path analysis which due to the simple causal diagram could be implemented by including exposure in the logistic regression model. Eight thousand six hundred and forty-four episodes could be included among which 1,245 (14 %) had a subsequent injury within 28 days. There was a highly significant negative association between scaled rehab time and injury risk (RR 0,896), which was more pronounced for recurrences (RR 0,815). Cornfield’s inequality indicates that exposure would have to be lower by at least ~10% for every interquartile range of rehab time of the respective index injury to account for the observed association. While this is substantial, early return is in fact closely associated with higher exposure and this association accounts entirely for the observed association between rehab time and injury risk (Figure 1). Note that Figure 1 also shows that high exposures are observed exclusively after an early return. We conclude that the negative association between rehab time and injury risk is largely accounted for by higher exposures after early return. However, following from the limitations associated with predicting outside the range of previously observed values, the virtual absence of high exposures after long rehab (for the respective diagnosis) impedes on predicting the effect of prolonging rehab time.

Ranking sports science and medicine interventions impacting team performance: a protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies in elite football

This study protocol describes a systematic method to identify, collect and rank sports science and medicine interventions most associated with optimising team performance in elite football in observational studies. While...

Mental processes in professional football players.

Clear connections have been found between mental processes and performance in elite level football. Yet, few studies have investigated how professional football players' experience the influence of mental processes on performance. This study used a qualitative research design and in-depth interview of six Norwegian professional football players at elite level with a mean age of 28, 3 years and represented five professional clubs. The aim of the study was to investigate how they perceived the importance of arousal regulation, mental toughness, and self-confidence, and that of the sport psychologist in developing these skills. The results revealed a complex and multifaceted link between mental processes and performance. All players, demonstrate a conscious awareness of how mental processes influence their performance. The use of a sport psychologist in working with mental processes emerges as a crucial factor for developing their mental skills. Another important aspect is the need for increased knowledge about mental training's effect in elite football. Mental toughness emerges as the most significant mental process for players' performance because it makes them capable of coping with challenging situations and periods. This study shows that mental processes are important for performing, both related to arousal regulation, and self-confidence, and especially mental toughness. However, mental toughness was also considered a product of age and experience, where older players tend to have experience of more situations that enable them to handle adversity better than younger players. Interestingly, the youngest players seem to be most aware of the use of a sports psychologist.

Nutritional habits of professional team sport athletes: An insight into the carbohydrate, fluid, and caffeine habits of English Premier League football players during match play

ABSTRACT To better understand the in-match fuelling practices of elite football players and compare against current guidelines, we quantified the carbohydrate, fluid, and caffeine intake of players from an English Premier League club (n = 22) during 90 min of competitive match-play. Mean carbohydrate intake across match-play was 17 ± 11 g.h−1 with players demonstrating a preference towards CHO-containing fluids (58%) when compared with semi-solids (38%) and solids (14%), respectively. CHO intake was significantly lower than reported by players (17 ± 11 vs 24.8 ± 11 g.h−1, p < 0.001) during initial consultation. Fluid was ingested at a rate of 0.45 ± 0.14 L.h−1, with 54, 40 and 6% of ingested fluid coming from water, carbohydrate, and electrolyte-only solutions, respectively. The majority of players (91%) met the UEFA guidelines for fluid consumption. Of the players who consumed caffeine across match-play (55%) the average dose was 233 ± 148 mg (2.8 ± 1.1 mg.kg−1 body mass [BM]), which meets the UEFA consensus guidelines for caffeine intake. Caffeine capsules (42%) and caffeine containing fluids (30%) were the preferred format prior to the warm-up whilst caffeine gum was exclusively used prior to kick-off and during the half-time period (100%). We conclude that 81% of the total playing squad failed to meet the current UEFA CHO intake recommendations of 30–60 g.h−1, which may be attributed to the preference towards fluid-based CHOs as the chosen format of delivery.

Real-world implementation of the Copenhagen Adduction Exercise: what do football teams modify and why?

ObjectivesTo evaluate the use and modification of the Copenhagen Adduction Exercise in football (soccer) teams, including the reasons for modification and alternate injury-prevention strategies.MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, staff members from...

Changes in performance on physical capacity tests after three months of cross-training among elite male football referees in Burkina Faso

The performance of the football referee is partly determined by his physical abilities and cross-training is an effective training method. The aim of this study was to measure the effects of three months of cross-training on performance in physical field tests among elite soccer referees in Burkina Faso. Methods: It was carried out with 28 male referees, divided into two groups: cross-training group (CTG) and usual training group (UTG). CTG and UTG went through cross-training and regular elite referee training in Burkina Faso, respectively. max, running times over 10 m (RT10 m), 40 m (RT40 m) single sprint, Illinois agility test (RTIAT), and the mean running time to the repeated sprint ability test (RSAmean) were studied. The significance level of the statistical tests carried out was set at p &lt; 0.05. Results: Significant improvements were observed in CTG for: max (+3.6%; p = 0.0009), RT10 m (-9.6%; p = 0.009), RT40 m (-3.2%; p = 0.0009), RTIAT (-4.8%; p = 0.0009) and RSAmean (-1.4%; p = 0.002). In UTG, performance was improved for: max (+0.6%; p = 0.01), RT10 m (-1.5%; p = 0.01), RTIAT (-1.8%; p = 0.008). Improvements were greater in CTG than in UTG for: max (+3.6% versus +0.6%; p = 0.000007), RT10 m (-9.6% versus -1.5%; p = 0.0001) and RTIAT (-4.8% versus -1.8%; p = 0.001). Conclusion: The results indicate that cross-training induces an improvement in performance on the tests used among elite football referees in Burkina Faso. These effects on cardiac physiology must be evaluated in these referees to determine the risk incurred by exposure to this method.

Validity of a motor-cognitive dual-task agility test in elite youth football players.

Agility, as the ability to react rapidly to unforeseen events, is an essential component of football performance. However, existing agility diagnostics often do not reflect the complex motor-cognitive interaction required on the field. Therefore, this study evaluates the criterion and ecological validity of a newly developed motor-cognitive dual-task agility approach in elite youth football players and compare it to a traditional reactive agility test. Twenty-one male youth elite football players (age:17.4±0.6; BMI:23.2±1.8) performed two agility tests (reactive agility, reactive agility with integrated multiple-object-tracking (Dual-Task Agility)) on the SKILLCOURT system. Performance was correlated to motor (sprint, jump), cognitive (executive functions, attention, reaction speed) and football specific tests (Loughborough soccer passing test (LSPT)) as well as indirect game metrics (coaches' rating, playing time). Reactive agility performance showed moderate correlations to attention and choice reaction times (r=0.48-0.63), as well as to the LSPT (r=0.51). The dual-task agility test revealed moderate relationships with attention and reaction speed (r=0.47-0.58), executive functions (r=0.45-0.63), as well as the game metrics (r=0.51-0.61). Finally, the dual-task agility test significantly differentiated players based on their coaches' rating and playing time using a median split (p<0.05; d=0.8-1.28). Motor-cognitive agility performance in elite youth football players seems to be primarily determined by cognitive functions. The integration of multiple object tracking into reactive agility testing seems to be an ecologically valid approach for performance diagnostics in youth football.