Elite Football Research Articles

‘Refugee footballers’: A socioecological exploration of forced migrants in the Italian and German elite football system

Against the background of the recent European ‘refugee crisis’ and its long-term consequences, this article investigates the research question ‘how do footballers with a refugee background experience the process of accessing top-level football?’, using ethnographic material and interviews with competitive footballers with a refugee background in Italy and Germany from two studies. The material was examined using qualitative content analysis and interpreted through the ecological systems theory. The results show that inclusion to professional football is complex for refugee footballers who are faced with the additional hurdles and consequences of a forced migration. Moreover, refugees build their networks within the process of resettlement, without a clear path for inclusion to elite football. Those who ‘make it’ have relied on key enablers within their microsystem and on mesosystemic interactions, further emphasizing the importance of networks for professional development. In contrast, exosystemic and macrosystemic factors further hinder the possibility of a sport career in football, on top of the existing difficulties of a forced migration. The process of seeking inclusion in competitive football however has been identified as a positive element that can provide direction in resettlement and opportunities for socialisation.

Comparison of nerve conduction velocities of lower extremities between football players and controls

This study aimed to compare neuronal function in the lower limbs of elite footballers and an age-matched control group. Conduction velocity, response latency and amplitude following electrical stimulation were investigated. Thirty male football players and 30 untrained males comprised the subject and control groups, respectively. We showed that professional football players have significantly slower sural nerve conduction velocity than untrained controls (p<0.05). Although we found no signs of neuropathy, mild changes in nerve conduction velocity were evident in the sural nerve of the players. Motor conduction velocity of tibial nerve was also significantly prolonged in this group when comparing dominant and non-dominant extremities (p<0.05). The tibial nerve muscle action potential amplitude was lower in the players’ dominant limbs compared with the controls (p<0.05). We found no statistical difference in motor conduction velocities, distal latencies and amplitudes of the common peroneal nerve when comparing players and controls in both dominant and non-dominant limbs (p>0.05). Our results showed abnormalities of function in the sural and tibial nerves in football players compared with untrained controls, which may indicate early signs of neuropathy.

Comparative Analysis of Body Composition Profiles among Latin American Elite Football Players Competing in Europe

It has yet to be determined whether or not differences in body composition are present between international and non-international players playing in the same elite professional club competition. Similarly, it is not yet clear whether or not differences in body composition exist according to ethnic origin where relative homogeneity is to be expected among soccer players. There is no single anthropometric profile that guarantees sporting success, as success differs according to characteristics. The aim of this study was to assess the description, comparison, and correlation of the body composition profile of Latin American professional football players playing in European leagues. The sample was composed of 238 Latin American male football players from European professional football leagues of Spain, Italy and England during the competition period. Differences were found in all measures. The present study shows that Latin American professional football players playing in Europe have significant differences in various body composition variables such as weight, height, WC, skinfold and fat values. This means that training, revalidation after injury and the classifications of sporting performance carried out in European football clubs should take into account the anthropometric difference between Latin American and European players.

Transfer Effect of Cognitive Advantages in Visual Working Memory Capacity: Evidence from Elite Football Players.

The research has indicated that elite football players demonstrate cognitive advantages in visual working memory capacity (VWMC); however, it remains unclear whether this effect transfers to other domains cognitive advantages. This study investigated the VWMC differences between elite football players and novices, with a particular focus on cognitive advantages. Elite football players (specialized in football) and novices were selected to complete the VWMC test task under three different stimulus conditions, then the differences in the VWMCs of elite football players and novices were analyzed. In comparison to novices, elite football players demonstrated cognitive advantages in VWMCs, along with a possible transfer effect. Additionally, the study showed that the reaction times among elite football players and novices differed, with elite players demonstrating shorter reaction times, which is a difference that was amplified as the number of stimuli increased. The VWMCs of elite football players was better than that of novices under professional and meaningless conditions, which indicates that the VWMCs of elite football players has a transfer effect. Through further analysis of the reaction times cognitive advantages, it was found that there are significant differences between elite football players and novices when responding to the stimuli in both professional and meaningless conditions.

Development of an algorithm-based approach using neuromuscular test results to indicate an increased risk for non-contact lower limb injuries in elite football players

ObjectivesThis retrospective cohort study explored an algorithm-based approach using neuromuscular test results to indicate an increased risk for non-contact lower limb injuries in elite football players.MethodsNeuromuscular data (eccentric hamstring strength,...

Training Load Quantification in Women's Elite Football: A Season-Long Prospective Cohort Study.

The aim of this study was to investigate (1)if there are differences in training load and intensity between the different training days within a microcycle and (2)if training load and intensity within the different training days are stable over the course of a season. Data were collected over a full season from a team in the women's premier division in Norway. External load (total distance, high-speed-running distance, sprint distance, and the combined number of accelerations and decelerations [ACCDEC]) was assessed using a 10-Hz GPS system with a built-in accelerometer. Internal load was assessed through session rating of perceived exertion, which was multiplied with session duration (session rating of perceived exertion-load). Training days were classified in relation to their proximity to the upcoming match day (MD): MD - 4, MD - 3, MD - 2, and MD - 1. Contents on these days were standardized according to a weekly periodization model followed by the coaching staff. Differences between training days were analyzed using a linear mixed-effects model. All training days were significantly different from each other across multiple variables. ACCDEC values were highest on MD - 4 (147.5 [13.0] ACCDEC count), and all distance variables were highest on MD - 3. All measures of training load were significantly reduced from MD - 3 to MD - 2 (effect size [ES] = 1.0-4.1) and from MD - 2 to MD - 1 (ES = 1.6-4.3). A significant negative effect across the season was observed for session rating of perceived exertion-load and ACCDEC (ES = 0.8-2.1). These results provide evidence that elite female football teams can be successful in differentiating training load between training days when implementing a weekly periodization approach.

A Comparative Study of Motivation in Sports Training among Senior and Junior Professional Football Players in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The Covid-19 pandemic has brought significant changes to the lives of athletes, particularly regarding the uncertainty surrounding the continuation of sports training and the postponement of sporting events. Given these disruptions to athletes’ routines, the role of motivation in sports participation is considered even more crucial. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the differences in motivation for sports participation during the Covid-19 pandemic between senior and junior professional football players. The sample consisted of 358 elite football players from the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The players were divided into two groups: senior (n=193, 24.87±3.78 years) and junior (n=165, 18.08±1.00 years) football players. The Participation Motivation Questionnaire (PMQ) was utilized, comprising 19 items classified into six motivational dimensions: “Sports success”, “Social status”, “Friendship”, “Physical health”, “Sports activity”, and “Support”. A five-point Likert scale was used in the questionnaire, which was administered electronically via Google Forms. Results revealed that junior football players achieved significantly higher values in only three out of the 19 items: “Want to be popular” (.005), “Want to get status” (.001), and “Wished for friendly games” (.000). However, there were no differences between the senior and junior football player groups in the remaining 16 items. Also, both groups displayed exceptionally high motivation levels in the dimensions of “Sports success”, “Physical health”, and “’Friendship”, while the weakest results were observed in the dimension of ‘Support’ for both groups. Despite the specific challenges posed by the Covid-19 pandemic, the motivation to play football remains very high among both senior and junior football players. This study is essential as it provides insights into football players’ motivation and identifies differences in motivation levels between junior and senior players. The findings can be valuable for practical purposes, aiming to enhance motivation among football players, especially during circumstances where training conditions are disrupted, such as the Covid-19 pandemic.

Effects of Nutrition Interventions on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review.

More than 270 million participants and 128,893 professional players play soccer. Although UEFA recommendations for nutrition in elite football exist, implementing these guidelines among professional and semiprofessional soccer players remains suboptimal, emphasizing the need for targeted and individualized nutritional strategies to improve adherence to established recommendations. We conducted a comprehensive search in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and clinical trial registers. Inclusion criteria focused on professional or semiprofessional soccer players, nutrition or diet interventions, performance improvement outcomes, and randomized clinical trial study types. We assessed quality using the Risk of Bias 2 (RoB 2) tool. We identified 16 eligible articles involving 310 participants. No nutritional interventions during the recovery period effectively improved recovery. However, several performance-based interventions showed positive effects, such as tart cherry supplementation, raw pistachio nut kernels, bicarbonate and mineral ingestion, creatine supplementation, betaine consumption, symbiotic supplements, and a high-carbohydrate diet. These interventions influenced various aspects of soccer performance, including endurance, speed, agility, strength, power, explosiveness, and anaerobic capacity. Specific strategies, such as solutions with bicarbonate and minerals, high carbohydrate diets, and supplements like creatine, betaine, and tart cherry, can enhance the performance of professional soccer players. These targeted nutritional interventions may help optimize performance and provide the competitive edge required in professional soccer. We did not find any dietary interventions that could enhance recovery.

Turmeric supplementation improves markers of recovery in elite male footballers: a pilot study.

Football match-play causes muscle damage and provokes an inflammatory response. Rapid recovery is paramount to optimising subsequent performance and reducing injury risk. Turmeric contains high concentrations of curcumin, a polyphenol that has been shown to reduce muscle damage and soreness post-exercise in recreational exercisers. However, it is unknown whether a curcumin-containing supplement can support elite footballers recovery between matches. This applied study explored whether a turmeric supplement could improve performance, subjective and physiological markers of recovery, in elite male footballers. Twenty-four elite male footballers divided into a turmeric group, who consumed 60 mL of a turmeric drink twice per day, or a control group who did not. After 96 h of rest, baseline measurements of subjective soreness (leg and whole-body), plasma creatine kinase ([CK]), plasma C-reactive protein ([CRP]), isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and counter movement jump (CMJ), were collected. Following eight competitive matches, subjective leg and whole-body soreness and plasma concentrations of inflammation markers ([CK] and [CRP]) were assessed immediately (0 h), 40 and 64 h post-match. Performance markers (IMTP and CMJ) were also assessed at 40 and 64 h post-match. Percentage change from baseline showed a main effect of group (p = 0.035, p = 0.005) and time (p = 0.002, p = 0.002) for both leg and whole-body soreness, respectively. There was a group by time interaction effect (p = 0.049) for [CRP]. There were no effects of turmeric on [CK], CMJ or IMTP. This applied study is the first in elite footballers to show that a curcumin-containing supplementation may attenuate a biomarker of inflammation [CRP] and soreness post-match play.

Future horizons in the analysis of technical-tactical performance in women's football: a mixed methods approach to the analysis of in-depth interviews with professional coaches and players.

Scientific knowledge about the criteria that determine success in women's football is beginning to develop. This study was carried out with the aim of detecting regularities in the offensive success in elite women's football, as well as carrying out an interrelational analysis of linked behaviors, based on in-depth interviews with professional coaches and players. Eight in-depth interviews were conducted with professional Spanish coaches and players. The interviews were analyzed by indirect observation from a process of "quantitizing," through the construction of an indirect observation ad hoc instrument. The segmentation of the transcription of the interviews was carried out in textual units, and the creation of a matrix of codes. Two types of analysis were performed: first, a lag sequential analysis (LSA) was performed and, then, a polar coordinates analysis (PCA), which allowed to find, respectively, a wide number of established communicative patterns with offensive performance in women's football, as well as an interrelational map between the established codes. The results obtained allowed us to suggest a statistically significant association between success in women's football and criteria such as the physical characteristics of a particular player, the individual action space, the duration of the attack, the type of dynamic start, individual and collective technical and tactical aspects, decision making and the type of attack used. Based on these results, the influence of these criteria on performance in women's soccer can be studied in future studies. In addition, with the aim of increasing the validity of these conclusions, new studies on this subject may be carried out following strategies such as the Delphi Method.

Mental toughness in the Football Association Women's Super League: Relationships with playing experience, perceptions of club infrastructure, support mechanisms and self-esteem.

Previous research reports a positive association between possession of mental toughness (MT) and high performance in sportspersons. However, the extent to which MT is related to playing experiences and appreciation of club environment in elite women's football has received only limited research attention. Accordingly, the present study investigated MT in the context of the English Football Association Women's Super League (WSL). Specifically, this paper examined relationships between level of MT and external (playing experience, perceptions of club infrastructure, and appreciation of support mechanisms) and internal (self-esteem) factors. A sample of 63 elite female professional football players from the WSL, aged between 18 and 35 years (mean = 25.87, SD = 4.03), completed self-report measures. To objectively validate self-ratings, congruence between self and peer-rated was assessed. This revealed a strong degree of consistency. Subsequent analysis found positive correlations between MT, playing experience (number of years playing football, NoY; and highest level of football achieved, HLA), and External Support. Additionally, Self-Esteem correlated positively with MT, NoY, HLA, and External Support. Moderation analysis found MT interacted with NoY and predicted greater levels of Self-Esteem. Players with lower and mean MT, and more years as a professional were more likely to possess higher Self-Esteem (vs. less years). These outcomes indicated important relationships between MT, External Support, and Self-Esteem. Accordingly, WSL clubs can potentially apply the results of this study to enhance positive player mindset.

The influence of age on the match-to-match variability of physical performance in women's elite football.

Introduction: The fluctuation of external match load throughout a season is influenced by several contextual factors. While some, have been deeply analysed in men's football literature, information is lacking on how other contextual elements, such as player's age or experience, may affect the match-to-match variability of locomotor activities. In fact, aging has been described as a multifactorial process with the potential to affect human performance. The aim of this study is to assess if the variability of match locomotor performances fluctuates according to the players' age. Methods: 59 female players from four top-level clubs were divided into three age groups and monitored during two seasons using GPS APEX (STATSports, Northern Ireland), with a sampling frequency of 10Hz, in 150 official matches to determine the coefficient of variation (CV) of full-match and 1-min peak locomotor demands of total distance (TD), high-speed running distance, sprint distance (SpD), accelerations, and decelerations. To test whether there was a group effect of age on match-to-match variability we used a one-way ANOVA with CV% as the independent variable. Results: CV values of full match variables ranged from 3.8% to 27.8%, with total distance (3.8%) in the peak age group and SpD (27.8%) in the pre-peak age group. Similarly, CV values of 1-min peaks ranged from 4.1% (post-peak group) in TD to 22.3% (peak group) in SpD. Discussion: The main finding was that there were no significant differences between the different age groups in the metrics analysed although trends indicate less variability in the post-peak age group.

Most modifiable risk factors for hamstring muscle injury in women’s elite football are extrinsic and associated with the club, the team, and the coaching staff and not the players themselves: the UEFA Women’s Elite Club Injury Study

PurposeTo describe the perceived importance of suggested hamstring injury risk factors according to chief medical officers (CMOs) of European women’s professional football clubs. A secondary objective was to compare if these perceptions differed between teams with a lower-than-average and higher-than-average hamstring injury burden.MethodsThe CMOs of eleven European professional women’s football clubs were initially asked to suggest modifiable risk factors for hamstring injury. These risk factors were rated in according with their perceived importance on a 5-graded Likert scale. Participating teams were divided in two groups depending on their hamstring injury burden during the 2020/21 season. The LOW group consisted of six teams that had a lower-than-average hamstring injury burden. The HIGH group consisted of five teams that had a higher-than-average hamstring injury burden.ResultsTwenty-one risk factors were suggested, most of which were extrinsic in nature, hence associated with the coaching staff, the team or the club organization rather than with the players themselves. The risk factors with the highest average importance were: “lack of communication between medical staff and coaching staff” and “load on players” (each with a weighted average of 3.9), followed by “lack of regular exposure to high-speed football actions during training” and “playing matches 2–3 times a week” (weighted average of 3.8 and 3.7). Differently from the LOW group, the HIGH group perceived the coaching factors (style of coach leadership, training/exercise surveillance by coaching staff) as more important.ConclusionIn accordance to the eleven CMOs recruited in this study, most risk factors for hamstring injuries are extrinsic in nature and associated with the club, the team, and the coaching staff, and not the players themselves.Level of evidenceLevel III.

The Annual Training and Competitive Calendar in Elite Football: A Road To The Holy Grail?

Organisations governing football codes worldwide continually seek to optimise the balance between their match calendar and commercial revenue. For many competitions, the result is more matches, and consequently, increased workload and travel demands for players. However, as competitions expand, the greater volume and/or intensity of workload challenges coaches’ best practices in balancing performance with recovery and injury risk. This current perspective article aims to overview the annual training and competition calendar of professional football codes and competitions internationally. There is a vast difference in the length and structure of each component of football macrocycles, which appears dependent on the physiological capabilities required to compete in each code successfully. However, there is little research to justify the season’s structure of any football code. The importance of athlete physical and mental health is highlighted, and discussed the limitations and restrictions governing bodies implement to protect players. In conclusion, future research to improve the structure of the annual training and match calendar should incorporate a framework of both physiological and psychological components to support elite football athletes better.

Exploring Antecedents and Outcomes of Customer Engagement Among Elite Football Fans

As Customer Engagement (CE) drives brand loyalty and word-of-mouth, it is fundamental to the success of brands. Yet, while previous studies have examined the nature of CE, few have explored CE toward actors other than the focal firm or brand. Therefore, this study analyses and compares antecedents and outcomes of two types of CE: CE with a focal brand (CEF), and CE with other customers (CEC). 2031 customers of Swedish elite football were surveyed and analyzed in a SEM-model. Among others, the results indicate that CEC is more important to brand-loyalty and word-of-mouth than CEF.

Impact of (long) COVID on athletes’ performance: a prospective study in elite football players

Objectives To investigate possible persistent performance deficits after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in elite athletes. Methods A prospective cohort study in three Belgian professional male football teams was performed during the 2020 − 2021 season. Participants were submitted to strength, jump, and sprint tests and an aerobic performance test (the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test (YYIR)). These tests were repeated at fixed time intervals throughout the season. Assessment of SARS-CoV-2 infection was performed by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test before each official game. Results Of the 84 included participants, 22 were infected with SARS-CoV-2 during follow-up. At the first testing after infection (52.0 ± 11.2 days after positive PCR testing) significantly higher percentages of maximal heart rate (%HRmax) were seen – within the isolated group of infected players- during (p = .006) and after the YYIR (2 min after, p = .013), compared to pre-infection data. This increase in %HRmax was resolved at the second YYIR testing after infection (127.6 ± 33.1 days after positive PCR testing). Additionally, when comparing the first test after infection in formerly infected to non-infected athletes, significantly higher %HRmax were found during (p < .001) and after the YYIR test (p < .001),No significant deficits were found for the jump, muscular strength or sprint tests. Conclusion Aerobic performance seems compromised even weeks after infection. Simultaneously, anaerobic performance seemed to be spared. Because of the potential detrimental effects on the immune system, caution might be advised with high-intensity exposure until aerobic performance is restored. KEY MESSAGES Elite football players’ aerobic performance seems to be affected for weeks after they return to sports after a SARS-CoV-2 infection. Similarly, anaerobic performance tests showed no discernible changes between both before and after SARS-CoV-2 infections. Regular YYIR testing is recommended to monitor aerobic performance after SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Ghost games and ex-post viewing preferences for the English Premier League: Evidence from YouTube highlights

We ask if the move to play elite football (soccer) matches without spectators during the COVID-19 pandemic impacted online viewership. Using a new dataset from YouTube, we depart from the traditional ex ante approach to modelling football demand and investigate streaming preferences for known results in football. Our data is collected in real-time and considers English Premier League matches from 2019 to 2021 played both in front of crowds and behind closed doors. The results indicate increased viewership for matches played without crowds. The findings also allow a deeper understanding of direct demand for football as we identify motivators, including different pre-game and in-game characteristics as well as scheduling effects, that make fans curious to view content after the fact. The research adds to our understanding of the effects of the pandemic on fan viewer behaviour and speaks to broadcasting firms developing digital extension strategies.

Time-loss and recurrence rates after lateral ankle ligament sprains in male elite football players: summary of a systematic review and meta-analysis

A literature search was conducted to systematically review and meta-analyse time-loss and recurrence rates of lateral ankle sprains (LAS) in male professional football players. Six electronic databases were screened separately for time-loss and recurrence rates after lateral ankle sprains in elite football players. A total of 13 (recurrence) and 12 (time-loss) studies met the previously defined inclusion criteria. The total sample size of the recurrence studies was 36.201 participants (44.404 overall initial injuries, 7944 initial ankle sprain (AS) injuries, 1193 recurrent AS injuries). 16.442 professional football players (4893 initial AS injuries, 748 recurrent AS injuries) were subsequently meta-analysed. A recurrence rate of 17.11% (95% CI: 13.31-20.92%; df=12; Q=19.53; I2=38.57%) was determined based on the random-effects model. A total of 7736 participants were part of the time-loss studies (35.888 total injuries, 4848 total ankle injuries; 3370 AS injuries). Out of the 7736 participants, 7337 participants met the inclusion criteria with a total of 3346 AS injuries. The average time-loss was 15 days (weighted mean: 15.92, median: 14.95, min: 9.55; max: 52.9). A priori, we determined considerable heterogeneity (CI: 18.15-22.08; df=11; Q=158; I2=93%). There is an average time-loss of 15 days per LAS and a recurrence rate of 17%. LAS is one of the most common types of injury with high recurrence rates in professional football players. The high recurrence rates and long-term consequences show the necessity for research in the field of LAS in elite football. However, heterogeneous data lead to difficulties regarding the aspect of comparability.

Designing elite football programmes that produce quality athletes and future ready adults: incorporating social emotional learning and career development

ABSTRACT This article uses a positive youth development (PYD) perspective to recommend a number of programme design strategies for improving the mental health and wellbeing, future readiness, and performance of elite youth footballers in the academy system. Elite youth footballers refers to the estimated 12,000 boys (aged 8–21) who are contracted to professional academies at any one time, with many of these youth experiencing negative outcomes during their time within the academy system and beyond (e.g. psychological distress, inferior academic outcomes, academic disengagement, foreclosed identities, impaired social and emotional development). The recommendations are framed around key PYD competencies with the primary goal being to increase resilience, proactivity, and adaptability amongst these youth.

‘Full speed ahead Barcelona’: the social construction of Roy Keane’s 1999 semi-final performance versus Juventus

ABSTRACT For over 30 years, the men's UEFA Champions League (UCL) has showcased Europe's most elite and wealthiest football clubs. Debates surrounding the competition’s best individual performance rarely reach a consensus. However, one common response points towards Manchester United’s Roy Keane versus Juventus in the 1999 semi-final second leg. After falling 2-0 behind within 11 minutes, Keane almost single-handedly swung the game in United's favour as the final in Barcelona loomed. This article examines Keane's performance through the lens of a sociological case-study, drawing on the circumstances of his career and the match itself. Critical attention is given to sociologist Everett Hughes’ conceptual belief of turning points, which has been innovatively applied to a single event in this paper. The author argues that, while statistics have typically driven performance analysis, only a sociological interpretation of Keane's performance provides an accurately sophisticated comprehension of, arguably, one of the UCL’s greatest individual performances.