Elite Female Water Polo Players Research Articles

Incidence of Concussions in Elite Female Water Polo: A Retrospective Analysis.

Current evidence for concussions is mixed in water polo players. Surveys suggest rates as high as 36%, whereas surveillance studies at international competitions often fail to report them at all. The goal of this study was to examine the incidence of concussions in elite female water polo players from surveillance tools implemented longitudinally. Retrospective chart analysis of 10 years spanning between 2012 and 2022. National teams or professional sports. Female players from the Canadian senior national water polo teams that participated in international competitions and trained more than 10 hours per week in a competitive environment. Included player position, recurrence, and time loss before full return to play. Prevalence of concussion diagnosis. Forty-three concussions were identified over the 10 years observed at a median count of 3 concussions per year. Cumulative days lost spanned between 25 and 348 days per team*year. Altogether, this produced a median rate of 14.3 injuries per 100 player*years. Goalkeepers in the sample suffered the highest rates of concussion (25.8%), compared with players in other positions (22.8% of centers and 16.7% of drivers). This study found evidence for prevalence of concussions in elite female water polo players. Improved guidelines preceded a significant reduction in time loss after the year 2017. This adds to a body of knowledge suggesting that improved surveillance methods are needed to detect and care for concussions in this population.

Changes in Muscle Activation During and After a Shoulder-Fatiguing Task: A Comparison of Elite Female Swimmers and Water Polo Players.

This study compared female athletes with different aquatic sports expertise in their neuromuscular activation before, during, and after a shoulder internal rotation fatigue protocol. Eleven water polo players, 12 swimmers, and 14 controls completed concentric maximal voluntary external and internal shoulder rotations before and after a fatigue protocol consisting of concentric internal rotations at 50% of maximal voluntary contraction for at least 3 min or until reporting a rating of perceived effort RPE of 8/10 or higher. Muscle activation was measured for the maximal voluntary contractions, as well as for the first (T1), middle (T2), and third (T3) minute of the fatigue protocol using surface electromyography (EMG) on pectoralis major, anterior and posterior deltoid, upper and middle trapezius, and latissimus dorsi. Intramuscular EMG was used for supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and subscapularis. Pre-fatigue internal rotation torque was significantly correlated with shorter task duration (r = −0.39, p = 0.02), with water polo players producing significantly greater torque than controls but having significantly lower endurance. Swimmers demonstrated decreased latissimus dorsi activation at T3 compared to T2 (p = 0.020, g = 0.44) and T1 (p = 0.029, g = 0.74), differing from water polo players and controls who exhibited increased agonist activation and decreased activation of stabilizers. Comparing the pre-fatigue to the post-fatigue maximal shoulder rotations, water polo players had decreased activation in subscapularis (p = 0.018, g = 0.67); all groups had decreased activation in latissimus dorsi (p < 0.001), though swimmers demonstrated a large effect (g = 0.97); and controls had decreased activation in supraspinatus (p = 0.005, g = 0.71). Together, these results suggest that sports expertise may be associated with different muscle activation both while and after fatigue is induced. Further research should continue to explore sports-specific patterns of muscle recruitment and fatigue adaptations, as well as if certain strategies are adaptive or maladaptive. This may have important consequences for injury prevention among athletes who perform repetitive overhead movements in their sports and who are susceptible to overuse injuries.

Throwing performance after high-velocity low-amplitude thrust manipulation at the cervicothoracic and thoracolumbar junction in elite female water polo players: a randomized blind cross-over study.

The effect of high-velocity low-amplitude (HVLA) thrust manipulation at the cervicothoracic and thoracolumbar junction in healthy elite female water polo players on throwing performance is unknown. Ten healthy members of the Dutch National female water polo team participated in this randomized blind cross-over study. All received a HVLA manipulation and a sham manipulation at the cervicothoracic and thoracolumbar junction. Hereafter maximum throwing speed, range of motion and isometric strength were measured at 1 hour, 48 hours and 4 weeks follow-up. No significant differences in maximum throwing speed was found between HVLA and sham manipulation. In the non-dominant shoulder external rotation increased significantly (5.3±6.7°) 48 hours after sham manipulation, this effect was not considered clinically significant and diminished after four weeks. Our results suggest that HVLA and sham manipulation had no effect on shot velocity or shoulder mobility and the same effect on shoulder strength in healthy elite female water polo players. The common use of cervicothoracic and thoracolumbar HVLA manipulation for improving performance in this specific group of athletes is therefore questionable.

Relative age effect and left-handedness in world class water polo male and female players

ABSTRACTMost studies of the relative age effect (RAE) refer to popular sports. In contrast, we examined to what extent the RAE is present in elite water polo players, as well as the association between handedness and RAE. For these purposes, laterality, anthropometry, month of birth, performance and playing position of participants in the 2011, 2013 and 2015 World Championships (623 women, 622 men) were analised. No RAE was observed in the total sample. However, the proportion of male left-handed field players born in the first quarter (11%) was lower than those born in the second (35.3%) and fourth quarter (29.4%). Regarding the overall laterality, the amount of left handed players was similar to the general population (10%). Nevertheless, there was a larger amount of left-handed wings than expected both in men (23.7%) and women (34.4%). Left-handed male players performed more shots, shots/minute and also scored more goals than right-handed players. Women left-handed players were younger and they performed more shots/minute. There is no RAE in elite male and female water polo players. However, laterality could be a possible moderator of the RAE particularly in left handed players, which should be taken into account in future studies.

The Effect of Beetroot Juice Supplementation on Dynamic Apnea and Intermittent Sprint Performance in Elite Female Water Polo Players.

Nitrate-rich beetroot juice is thought to have ergogenic effects, particularly in conditions where oxygen availability is limited. Whether these effects also apply to elite athletes is currently unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of beetroot juice supplementation on dynamic apnea and intermittent sprint performance in elite female water polo players. In a double-blinded, randomized, crossover manner, the Dutch National female water polo team (N = 14) was subjected to two 6-day supplementation periods (1 and 2), with either 140ml/day of nitrate-rich (BR; ∼800mg/day nitrate) or nitrate-depleted (PLA) beetroot juice. Following blood sampling on Day 6, the athletes performed a maximal-distance front crawl swimming test without breathing (dynamic apnea test). In addition, intermittent sprint performance was assessed by performing 16 swim sprints of 15m, in a 4 × 4 block with 30-s recovery between blocks (intermittent test). Distance covered during the dynamic apnea test did not differ between BR (49.5 ± 7.8m) and PLA (46.9 ± 9.1m, p = .178). However, when correcting for test order, the distance covered was significantly larger in BR versus PLA when BR was ingested in Period 2 (50.1 ± 8.5 vs. 42.8 ± 5.7m, p = .002), whereas no difference was observed when BR was ingested in Period 1 (48.8 ± 7.4 vs. 52.3 ± 10.4m, p = .10). The time to complete the intermittent test was not different between BR and PLA (316.0 ± 7.9 vs. 316.3 ± 6.9s, p = .73). In conclusion, beetroot juice supplementation does not improve intermittent performance in elite female water polo players, but there may be a potential for ergogenic effects during dynamic apnea.

Position-specific anthropometry and throwing velocity of elite female water polo players.

This study was conducted with the following aims: (a) to describe the effect of playing position on anthropometrics and throwing velocity in elite female water polo players and (b) to observe any relationships between anthropometric parameters and throwing velocity. To achieve these aims, we analyzed a total of 46 female elite players (age: 22.5 ± 5.1 years; height: 172.0 ± 6.9 cm, body mass: 67.4 ± 7.5 kg) members of the top 4 teams of the Spanish Honour Division women league (21 offensive wings players, 17 center, and 8 goalkeepers). Wings were significantly shorter and had smaller arm spans than goalkeepers and center players. Goalkeepers demonstrated longer forearm lengths than wing and center players. No other significant differences were evident between positions in terms of anthropometric, strength, or throwing velocity variables The somatotype of the offensive wing players was mesomorphic, whereas centers were endomorph (classified as endomesomorphic). Height, arm span, muscular mass, biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, arm girth (relaxed and tensed), and forearm girth were related to throwing velocity. In conclusion, only a small number of anthropometric differences exist between players of different positions in elite female water polo. Shorter players with smaller arm spans may be better suited to the wings, whereas athletes with longer forearms may be better suited to the goalkeeper position. Taller, more muscular athletes with wider arm spans, broader humeri, and wider arms (relaxed and flexed) tended to throw with increased velocity. Trainers should focus on increasing the modifiable characteristics (muscle mass and arm girths) that contribute to throwing velocity in this population.

Throwing performance and test-retest reliability in Olympic female water polo players.

Shooting performance is critical to successful water polo performance, requiring high levels of speed and accuracy. However, shooting speed and accuracy performance of elite female water polo players has not been described in detail nor has the reliability of accuracy measures been reported. Consequently, the aim of this study was to describe shooting performance in elite female water polo players and compare the test-retest reliability of the currently available accuracy measures. Ten Olympic female water polo players were tested on 3 occasions before Olympic competition for maximal throwing speed and accuracy (total error and hit percentage) toward various target locations, with and without a goalkeeper (GK) present. The current participants (all Olympic athletes) achieved higher speeds (16.8 m·s-1), higher hit percentages (45.3%) of a 20-cm sniper net target, and lower errors (20.7 cm) than any other female water polo players investigated previously. Performance was similar across the different target locations; however, both speed (15.2 vs. 14.8 m·s-1; p ≤ 0.05) and accuracy (50.2 vs. 37.7%; p ≤ 0.05) were reduced in the presence of a GK. Speed and total error was similar across the 3 testing sessions; however, hit percentage was statistically significantly higher in the final session (58.8% vs. 40.4 and 36.4%). Maximal throwing speed showed high levels of test-retest reliability (0.96). Total error (intraclass correlation [ICC] = 0.79) had slightly greater reliability than hit percentage (ICC = 0.73) overall. Hit percentage (ICC = 0.82) showed slightly greater reliability than total error (ICC = 0.72) without a GK present, whereas total error (ICC = 0.79) showed much greater reliability than hit percentage (ICC = 0.34) when a GK was present. This study benchmarks the high degree of throwing speed and accuracy required at the Olympic level in female water polo players. Although resource intensive, total error is a reliable measure of accuracy that allows for the nature of error to be described in detail, providing a great level of insight into performance. Hit percentage, while easier to obtain, should only be used when a GK is not present and in situations where describing the nature of error does not add value to coaching practices.

Changes in mood states and salivary cortisol levels following two months of training in elite female water polo players

Psychological and physiological markers have been used to maximize competitive sport preparation. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of two months of training and competitions on mood states and salivary cortisol diurnal variation in 15 female elite water polo players. The results demonstrated that the β coefficient values of the regression slope of cortisol values on sampling time was significantly flatter following the training period. The values of the area under the cortisol curve (AUC) 'with respect to ground' (AUCg) and those of the β coefficients of the slope of the diurnal change in cortisol levels were highly negatively correlated. The slope correlated positively with the dysfunctional Profile of Mood States scale and negatively with the functional scale. AUCg correlated negatively with dysfunctional factors and positively with the vigor index. These findings support the hypothesis that subclinical hypocortisolism and a flattened diurnal rhythm of cortisol may play a role in determining dysfunctional mood states.

Digit ratio (2D:4D) and mood states in elite female water polo players

Objective The relative length of the second and fourth digits (2D:4D) has been proposed as a marker of the prenatal androgen effects, with a relatively longer fourth finger indicating higher prenatal androgen exposure. Low 2D:4D has been reported to correlate with high performance and mood states in sport in general. On the psychological side, tests able to measure specific psychological features and mood states have been used. Here, we examined the relationship between 2D:4D and mood states in elite female water polo players.

Oxidative stress, inflammation and angiogenesis markers in elite female water polo athletes throughout a season

Elite athletes undergo heavy training programs throughout the year. The aim of the present study was to evaluate blood biomarkers of redox status, oxidative stress, inflammation and angiogenesis over the course of a competitive season in elite female water polo players. The biomarkers were evaluated in four distinct phases of an athletic season. It was found that the reduced glutathione (GSH) concentration was significantly increased, whereas catalase activity was decreased in erythrocytes in phases 3 and 4 compared to phase 2. Plasma concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) was increased in phases 3 and 4 compared to phases 1 and 2, the concentration of protein carbonyls was increased in phase 4, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was decreased in phases 2 and 3. Plasma monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) was decreased in phases 3 and 4; interleukin-10 (IL-10) was increased in phase 4, whereas no change was observed for adiponectin and endoglin. The findings of this study indicate that oxidative stress and inflammation varies over the season in elite female water polo athletes and this information might be used to apply remedies for optimizing athletic performance and accelerating training recovery.

Redox status of elite female water polo players

Redox status of elite female water polo players

The volume of goal shooting during training can predict shoulder soreness in elite female water polo players

ObjectivesExamine the association between measures shoulder soreness and the goal shooting volume in high performance women's water polo. DesignSeven national level female water polo players were monitored across two training camps (squad selection and team game-based). MethodsPerformance analysis coded all shots for each athlete during the training camps and the shoulder soreness information was gathered through an athlete self-rating survey. Residual maximal likelihood analysis was used to predict shoulder soreness. ResultsIt was shown that 74% (p=0.013) of shoulder soreness was explained by the volume of goal shooting during training (R2 0.743) with greater soreness associated with less rest time between shots (p=0.032). Greater levels of shoulder soreness were reported in the squad selection training camp compared to team game-based camp (p=0.002) with 29% of this shoulder soreness prediction based on individual athlete differences. ConclusionsShoulder soreness increased with a greater number of shots in conjunction with less rest. Monitoring athletes on an individual basis seemed the most appropriate method of identifying increased shoulder soreness.

Analysis and Dispersion of QT, JT and Tpeak-Tend Intervals in Elite Female Water Polo Players

Background The physiology of water polo has been difficult to study d ue to the characteristics of the game in the field of play. Little is known about cardiac electrophysiology in these athletes, particularly in women. The electrocardiographic findings in elite water polo athletes have been rarely studied. Objectives To analyze the ventricular repolarization in female water polo players from the Cuba’s National Preliminary Squad. M aterial and Methods W e conducted a cross-sectional study in a sample of two groups of women, one with 20 athletes and another with 20 healthy non-athletes. The electrocardiographic parameters of ventricular repolarization were compared in both groups. Results Mean age was 22.45±5.30 years vs. 22.45±5.30 years; p >0.05. Weight was greater in athletes compared to non-athletes (69.63±7.73 kg vs. 51.20±6.63 kg; p <0.001 ). Mean duration of sporting practice was 13.5 years. There were no significant differences in QTc and JTc intervals in lead DII between both groups, yet the intervals measured in lead V5 were longer in athletes (QTc: 405 ms vs. 424 ms; p <0.05 - JTc: 307 ms vs. 329 ms; p <0.05 ). QT interval dispersion was greater in athletes compared to non-athletes (74 ms vs. 43 ms; p <0.001). Tpeak-Tend interval was greater in athletes in leads V1 (64 ms vs. 81 ms; p <0.05), V3 (78 ms vs. 92 ms; p< 0.05), V4 (72 ms vs. 83 ms; p <0.05) and V5 (63 ms vs. 80 ms; p <0.05). Conclusions QTc and JTc intervals and QT interval dispersion were significantly greater in athletes. Tpeak-Tend interval was significantly greater in athletes in leads V1, V3, V4 and V5; Tpeak-Tend interval dispersion was greater, though not statistically significant in athletes.

Altered plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid fatty acid profile in elite female water polo and football players

The impact of chronic, intense exercise, such as in elite athletes, on phospholipids fatty acids (FA) composition has not been studied in women so far. This study aimed to investigate FA profiles in plasma and erythrocytes phospholipids in elite female water polo (N = 15) and football (N = 19) players in comparison with sedentary women. In spite of similar dietary patterns, as assessed by a food frequency questionnaire, plasma FA profile in the football players showed significantly higher proportions of stearic acid, oleic acid, and monounsaturated FA (MUFA), and significantly lower proportions of total and n-6 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) than in the water polo and control group. The water polo players had higher percentages of palmitoleic acid and arachidonic acid than the control subjects. Erythrocyte FA profile differed among groups. We found significantly higher proportion of oleic acid and MUFA in the football group than in the controls, and decreased stearic acid and elevated palmitic and palmitoleic acid in the water polo players than in the other 2 groups. Both groups of athletes had significantly lower percentages of n-6 dihomo-γ-linolenic acid, n-6 PUFA, and total PUFA compared with the controls. The estimated activities of elongase and desaturases in erythrocytes were also altered in the athletes. Our results indicate that long-term, intense physical training significantly affects FA status of plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids in women. The observed differences between the water polo and the football players suggest that the type of regular training may contribute to the altered metabolism of FA, although possible genetic differences among the 3 study groups cannot be ruled out.

Throwing Velocities, Anthropometric Characteristics, and Efficacy Indices of Women's European Water Polo Subchampions

Water polo is a team sport characterized by a high-intensity, intermittent activity, where technical and tactical aspect are of a great importance. For that reason, the main aim of this study was to define the anthropometrical characteristics, maximum isometric grip strength, training and competition throwing velocities, and the efficacy indices in female high-level water polo players. A second purpose was to examine the differences between the throwing velocities in training vs. European championships in the water polo female national team. Ten elite trained female water polo players participated in this study. Before the competitive phase of their season, the following measures were taken: standard anthropometry, static and dynamic training throwing velocities, and hand-grip dynamometry. In the competitive phase, efficacy indices, average and maximum throwing velocities from all the participants were also determined. Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were found between different training situations and different competitive throwing velocities. We concluded that elite female water polo players modify their throwing velocity depending if the throw is performed during training or competitive situation.

Effects of Induced Alkalosis on Simulated Match Performance in Elite Female Water Polo Players

This study investigated the effects of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) ingestion on simulated water polo match performance. Twelve elite players from the Australian National Women's Water Polo Squad (age 23.7 +/- 3.0 yr, height 1.73 +/- 0.05 m, body mass 75.7 +/- 8.0 kg) participated in the study. In a randomized cross-over double-blind design, players ingested 0.3 g/kg of NaHCO3 or placebo 90 min before performing a 59-min match-simulation test (MST) that included 56 x 10-m maximal-sprint swims as the performance measure. Capillary blood samples were obtained preingestion, pre- and post-warm-up, and after each quarter of the MST. Preexercise ingestion of NaHCO3 was effective in enhancing extracellular pH from baseline levels of 7.41; +/- 0.01 (M; +/- 90% confidence limits) to 7.49; +/- 0.01 and bicarbonate levels from 24.4; +/- 0.3 to 28.5; +/- 0.5 mmol/L. The percentage difference in mean sprint times between trials showed no substantial effects of NaHCO3 (0.4; +/- 1.0, effect size = 0.09; +/- 0.23; p = .51). These findings are contrary to those of previous NaHCO3 studies on simulated team-sport performance, but this investigation is unique in that it examined highly trained athletes performing sport-specific tasks. In conclusion, water polo players should not expect substantial enhancement in intermittent-sprint performance from NaHCO3 supplementation.

Anthropometric and Fitness Characteristics of Elite Australian Female Water Polo Players

The purpose of this study was to investigate the anthropometric and fitness characteristics of elite female water polo players and examine the differences between players of different competition levels (national and international) and playing positions (center and perimeter). Twenty-six female water polo players (National League, n = 12, and National Squad, n = 14) underwent measurements of standard anthropometry (height, body mass, and sum of 7 skinfolds), lower-body muscular power (in-water vertical jump), speed (10-m maximal sprint swim), and aerobic fitness (multistage shuttle swim test). No goalkeepers were involved. The National Squad players were taller (173.7 +/- 5.5 vs. 169.6 +/- 4.4 cm; p < 0.05) and heavier (74.6 +/- 8.0 vs. 65.8 +/- 8.4 kg; p < 0.05) and had better jumping (139.0 +/- 7.0 vs. 129.7 +/- 4.6 cm; p < 0.001), sprinting (5.96 +/- 0.21 vs. 6.26 +/- 0.34 seconds; p < 0.05), and endurance swimming abilities (652 +/- 84 vs. 449 +/- 124 m; p < 0.001) compared with the National League players. Perimeter players had lower-body mass (70.2 +/- 3.8 vs. 82.5 +/- 7.4 kg; p < 0.001) and skinfold levels (88.7 +/- 14.1 vs. 118.6 +/- 22.2 mm; p < 0.01) and better sprinting (5.88 +/- 0.19 vs. 6.10 +/- 0.19 seconds; effect size [ES] = 1.16, p > 0.05) and endurance swimming abilities (678 +/- 65 vs. 606 +/- 102 m; ES = 0.84, p > 0.05) compared with center players. These findings demonstrate that anthropometric and fitness characteristics can discriminate between players of different competition levels and playing positions. These water polo-specific field tests may assist coaches in profiling players and evaluating adaptations to training.

Comparison of Progressive Maximal Swimming Tests in Elite Female Water Polo Players

To compare the Multistage Shuttle Swim Test (MSST), Water Polo Intermittent Shuttle Test (WIST) and 5 200 m Incremental Swimming Test (IST) responses in elite female water polo players. Fourteen Australian Women's National Water Polo Squad members performed the MSST and WIST, and 13 players from a National Water Polo League club performed the IST, MSST and WIST on separate occasions (no goalkeepers were involved). Peak heart rate, blood lactate and ratings of perceived exertion were obtained for all tests. Expired air was collected following all tests for the National League players. The National Squad players scored significantly better (ie, distance covered) in the MSST and WIST than the National League players (effect sizes=1.60 to 1.79, P<.001). The MSST and WIST scores were significantly correlated (r=.80 to 0.88, P<.001). The MSST scores were significantly correlated with peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak; mL.kg(-1).min(-1)) obtained for all tests (r=.58 to 0.59, P<.05). In contrast, there were no significant correlations between the WIST scores and VO2peakobtained for any of the tests (r=.43 to 0.52, P>.05). Differences in VO2peakfor the IST, MSST and WIST were nonsignificant (P>.05). The MSST and WIST can discriminate players of different competition standards. The MSST can be used to estimate a player's aerobic fitness and peak heart rate. The WIST appears to better mimic the intermittent activity pattern of the game, but its application to female players, to assess maximal intermittent endurance swimming performance, requires further evaluation.