Elite Coaches Research Articles

Elite Football Coaches Experiences and Sensemaking about Being Fired: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis.

Background: Chronic job insecurity seems to be a prominent feature within elite sport, where coaches work under pressure of dismissals if failing to meet performance expectations of stakeholders. The aim of the current study was to get a deeper understanding of elite football coaches’ experiences of getting fired and how they made sense of that process. Method: A qualitative design using semi-structured interviews was conducted with six elite football coaches who were fired within the same season. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was chosen as framework to analyze the data. Results: The results reflected five emerging themes: Acceptance of having an insecure job, working for an unprofessional organization and management, micro-politics in the organization, unrealistic and changing performance expectation, and emotional responses. Conclusion: All coaches expressed awareness and acceptance regarding the risk of being fired. However, they experienced a lack of transparency and clear feedback regarding the causes of dismissal. This led to negative emotional reactions as the coaches experienced being evaluated by poorly defined expectations and by anonymous stakeholders. Sports organizations as employers should strive to be transparent during dismissal. In addition, job insecurity is a permanent stressor for coaches and should be acknowledged and targeted within coach education.

Defining cricket batting expertise from the perspective of elite coaches.

Traditionally in sporting tasks, expertise has been thought of as the attainment of near flawless technical abilities. While contemporary views have become more holistic in nature, in certain sporting domains it is still not clear what exactly encapsulates expertise. This study sought to further understand the crucial and defining characteristics of cricket batting; a complex and difficult perceptual-motor skill with minimal error tolerance and severe time constraints. Eight elite cricket batting coaches, who themselves were former international or state level batsmen, were interviewed to identify characteristics of cricket batting expertise. From this, a conceptual model was developed in relation to an expert within their performance environment. This model highlights several key factors experts possess beyond just technical proficiency, such as self-awareness of their technical and tactical strengths in relation to the situation of the game; self-regulatory behaviours to problem solve performance challenges in-game; and psychological strategies such as between-ball routines to manage cognitions and emotions. The conceptual model of batting expertise described in this paper is designed to introduce an order to how these various skills, possessed by an expert batter, interact within the performance environment to interpret expert performance.

THE CURRENT STATE AND ISSUES OF PREPARATION OF AN ATHLETIC RESERVE (BASED ON THE SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH)

Aim. The article deals with the analysis of the current state and issues of training sports reserve in track and field. Materials and methods. A questionnaire consisting of 12 questions and 57 subquestions of open-ended, close-ended and multiple choice types was developed. The questionnaire-based survey was carried out among Russian and Chinese coaches (n = 161) aged 20–72 years including Honored coaches of the Russian Federation (n = 7) and elite coaches (n = 38). Results. The questionnaire-based survey for coaches demonstrated that they worried about: declining popularity of track-and-field compared to other sports; early specialization and related risks; low qualification of coaches working with children and teenagers. Respondents pay special attention to negative consequences of early specialization such as early retirement from sport, loss of promising athletes; short career in elite sports; growing number of sports-related injuries in young athletes. According to coaches, the main factors contributing to early specialization are the following: a) specialized training, which results in a rapid growth of sport results; b) achievements in sports are so high that a coach has to search for sports reserve among children. According to the respondents, young athletes should participate in competitions to learn how to overcome themselves and accumulate competitive experience. The majority of respondents think that integrated training in track-and-field is one of the important factors of successful career. Conclusion. A social survey of coaches has revealed peculiarities and issues typical for training sports reserve in track-and-field, which have to be considered and resolved.

Psychological Resilience in Olympic Medal–Winning Coaches: A Longitudinal Qualitative Study

Although there is burgeoning research on resilience in elite athletes, there has been no empirical investigation of resilience in elite coaches. The purpose of this study was to explore psychological resilience in world-class coaches and how they develop resilience in athletes. A longitudinal qualitative design was adopted due to the dynamic and temporal nature of resilience. Five Olympic medal–winning coaches (four males and one female) were interviewed twice over a 12-month swimming season. Reflexive thematic analysis was employed to analyze the data. Findings revealed 14 higher order themes, which were categorized into the following three general dimensions: coach stressors (managing the Olympic environment, preparation for major events, coach personal well-being, directing an organization); coach protective factors (progressive coaching, coaching support network, maintaining work/life balance, secure working environment, durable motivation, effective decision making); and enhancing resilience in athletes (developing a strong coach–athlete relationship, creating a facilitative environment, developing a resilience process, athlete individual factors). The results are presented to demonstrate the interplay between coach stressors and protective factors over time, which offers an original and significant contribution to the resilience literature by providing a unique insight into the dynamic and temporal nature of resilience in Olympic medal–winning coaches.

The use and perceived value of telestration tools in elite football

ABSTRACTThe proliferation of technology allowing performance analysis practices to become more efficient and effective has grown rapidly in recent years. One such tool that has become widespread amongst elite football clubs is the use of telestration software which allow annotations to be drawn over video footage to illustrate key tactical, technical, physiological or psychological facets in an interactive manner. The purpose of this study is to investigate the use and application of telestration tools in elite football. A descriptive research approach was employed, using detailed questionnaires to gain the views and perceptions of elite analysts, coaches and players. Findings confirm the widespread use of telestration tools in elite football with 93% of respondents stating that it is “essential-very important” to their practice. In particular, telestration is found to play an integral role in oppositional analysis, especially when introducing key tactical information in pre-match meetings. Numerous barriers associated with the use of telestration were also uncovered in this novel, contemporary research which may help set the foundations for further research into telestration tools in sports not limited to football.

Unified approaches on talent development in football? Differences and similarities among representatives from a football association and two professional football clubs

Talent development is a major task for most coaches, both in professional and non-professional clubs. This study provides a qualitative analysis of how coaches and administrators from both the national football association and two professional clubs express their beliefs on coaching/skill acquisition perspective on how talent development should be done. This article consists of 14 semi-structured interviews with three administrators and two coaches at the Norwegian football federation and two administrators and seven coaches from two professional clubs. The results suggest shared views on the necessity of joining a professional club to become an elite player, although the perceived importance of the professional clubs differs among the respondents. Concerning early recruitment, some of the association and elite coaches believe present practice is able to identify and recruit the most talented players. The professional clubs are also aware of the risk of missing out on talented players, but justify their practice of early recruitment of talented players on increased competition. These different perspectives on talent development comparing representatives from the association and professional clubs could potentially effect the future talent development process and results.

Athletes as “Cultural Architects”: A Qualitative Analysis of Elite Coaches’ Perceptions of Highly Influential Soccer Players

The main purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of highly influential players in elite soccer. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 10 elite coaches to determine their perceptions of the characteristics, emergence, and impact of highly influential players. The interview guide was anchored in coaching literature and leadership theory, and after the interview data in this frame were explored, these athletes were labeled cultural architects. The results of the analysis revealed 3 general dimensions of cultural architects in elite teams: (a) personal characteristics, which include elements related to their achievements on the soccer pitch, mind-set, and collective orientation; (b) relationship to the coach, which includes integrity and trust; and (c) intrateam facilitator, which includes their impact as a task-team and social-team influencer. The results represent original findings identifying the characteristics of cultural architects in soccer that are most likely transferable to many other team sports.

The serious business of instructional humor outside the classroom: a study of elite gymnastic coaches’ uses of humor during training

ABSTRACTThis study documents the use of humor in an instructional setting outside traditional classrooms. Specifically, it studied the use of instructional humor in training elite and aspiring gymnasts. Analysis of practice recordings, firsthand observations, and interviews with coaches, staff members, athletes and their guardians, revealed that coaches employed instructional humor in patterned ways and at patterned times to encourage the learning process. This study is the first to document that coaches used humor to address athletes’ potential identity harm due to failure during practice (labeled here, ‘identity distracting function’) and to reaffirm athletes’ relational standing with coaches and peers in spite of those failures (labeled here, ‘relational reaffirmation function’). The study also identified situations in which humor is inappropriate during training. Thus, this study identified new functions of instructional humor used during the learning process for aspiring elite athletes. The transferability of findings to other settings is also described.

“I want to do well for myself as well!”: Constructing coaching careers in elite women’s football

ABSTRACT There is a limited understanding of the career development of sport coaches and how they design their lives in and through sport. We drew on career construction theory and narrative methodology to explore football coaches’ career development, adaptability resources, and the meanings they assigned to their journeys. Ten women’s football (soccer) coaches (2 women) aged 23–60 in England took part in narrative interviews. Our analysis indicated that early immersion into the football narrative context often resulted in low career exploration and a strong commitment to coaching as an attempt to keep the footballing identity narrative “going”. The coaches were resourceful in crafting their coaching careers; however, most of them expressed little concern or curiosity for other careers, leaving them vulnerable to psychological distress if unable to realise their career ambition. Women’s elite football presented a novel, attractive context for quicker career advancement and developing an elite coach identity. .

Competencies and training needs and its impact on determining the professional skills of Algerian elite coaches

The main purpose of this study is to develop an understanding of the trainers' perceptions of competency and training needs related to professional skills in accordance with professional experience and academic education. The sample included 76 judo trainers who answered a questionnaire that included a measure that focused on the perceptions of competency and another on training needs. An exploratory factor analysis was used with the maximum probability factor (Oblimin) to determine emerging factors. A comparison of the Coaches ' concepts was made in the training experience and the academic background of the Coaches, where multiple comparisons were applied using ANOVA and Tukey. Three main areas of skills were done: skills related to annual planning; skills related to practice and competition; and personal education and training skills. Coach es' perceptions of their expertise were affected, with low-level trainers classifying themselves at lower levels of efficiency and more training needs; and higher-education Coaches in physical education were more efficient than mid-level trainers. Finally, most trainers consider them as efficient as they have indicated the training needs to be provided, which brings important feedback to the education of trainers. This suggests that trainers are an increasing their knowledge and competence in a wide range of areas that should be considered in future training of trainers programs, also to ensure the quality of education and training in the different level of physical and sports education institutes of the Algerian universities.

Coaches' Evaluations of the Utility of the Basic Performance Demand Model for Sport

The Performance Demand Model for Sport (PDM; Males, Hudson, & Kerr) is based on four psychological fundamentals: mastery motivation, decision making, execution, and teamship. Four elite coaches from canoe slalom, rugby sevens, rowing, and athletics evaluated the utility of the PDM model and later trialed it with elite athletes. Two sets of semi-structured interviews provided subjective statements that generally: (a) supported PDM process-based principles and (b) post-field trials, endorsed the PDM for elite athlete use. With one exception, coaches used the PDM with athletes in different ways, recommending customization, simplification, and a focus on specific training contexts to enhance utility.

Strategies for Maintaining the Coach-Analyst Relationship Within Professional Football Utilizing the COMPASS Model: The Performance Analyst's Perspective.

There is a considerable body of research by that has investigated the coach–athlete relationship in sport. However, given the multi-disciplinary nature of modern elite coaching, there is a scarcity of research focusing on the relationship between coaches and other members of the coaching and support team. This study examined the perceptions of six elite professional football analyst’s relationships with their respective coaches. Semi structured interviews utilizing the COMPASS Framework were conducted focusing on Conflict, Openness, Motivation, Preventative Strategies, Assurance, Support, and Social Networks. The results verified that the COMPASS Model of relationship maintenance was applicable to this dyad. Content analysis indicated that there was 215 raw data units comprising of 16 higher order themes across the model which was further broken down into 29 lower order themes. All aspects of the model were found to contribute toward a positively maintained relationship. Having an open relationship underpinned by honesty and being able to provide an opinion was seen as the highest rated attribute that was closely followed by supporting the coach by understanding their requirements for successful coaching practice. Not meeting the coach’s expectations was found to cause conflict and was further highlighted by an inductive analysis that revealed the existence of a relationship that is fundamentally dictated by the coach. Implications of this investigation are that professionals which support elite performers need to set out clear expectations of working practice and hierarchies in order to minimize the chance of internal conflict that can impact on the service levels received by the performer.

Contemporary Periodization of Altitude Training for Elite Endurance Athletes: A Narrative Review.

Since the 1960s there has been an escalation in the purposeful utilization of altitude to enhance endurance athletic performance. This has been mirrored by a parallel intensification in research pursuits to elucidate hypoxia-induced adaptive mechanisms and substantiate optimal altitude protocols (e.g., hypoxic dose, duration, timing, and confounding factors such as training load periodization, health status, individual response, and nutritional considerations). The majority of the research and the field-based rationale for altitude has focused on hematological outcomes, where hypoxia causes an increased erythropoietic response resulting in augmented hemoglobin mass. Hypoxia-induced non-hematological adaptations, such as mitochondrial gene expression and enhanced muscle buffering capacity may also impact athletic performance, but research in elite endurance athletes is limited. However, despite significant scientific progress in our understanding of hypobaric hypoxia (natural altitude) and normobaric hypoxia (simulated altitude), elite endurance athletes and coaches still tend to be trailblazers at the coal face of cutting-edge altitude application to optimize individual performance, and they already implement novel altitude training interventions and progressive periodization and monitoring approaches. Published and field-based data strongly suggest that altitude training in elite endurance athletes should follow a long- and short-term periodized approach, integrating exercise training and recovery manipulation, performance peaking, adaptation monitoring, nutritional approaches, and the use of normobaric hypoxia in conjunction with terrestrial altitude. Future research should focus on the long-term effects of accumulated altitude training through repeated exposures, the interactions between altitude and other components of a periodized approach to elite athletic preparation, and the time course of non-hematological hypoxic adaptation and de-adaptation, and the potential differences in exercise-induced altitude adaptations between different modes of exercise.

Member reflections with elite coaches and gymnasts: looking back to look forward

ABSTRACTThis paper is a confessional tale that focuses on challenges encountered during the process of conducting member reflections, and on the lessons learned from these. Recent discussions on enhancing the rigor of qualitative research conducted from an interpretivist stance encourage the use of member reflections, rather than the previously widely adopted member checking. Yet, practical examples of how to use this technique are scarce in the sport, exercise and health literature. As a consequence, researchers trying to achieve rigor in their work might struggle, especially if inexperienced. In this work, the first author provides a personal narrative that explores the questions and doubts encountered when engaging with member reflections during her PhD degree. Drawing on the first author’s reflective journal, a challenging situation is portrayed, and recommendations for other neophyte researchers are forwarded through four main lessons learned: (a) lessons on rigor in qualitative research, (b) lessons on tellability and layers of understanding, (c) lessons on the importance of confrontations and knowledge exchange, and (d) lessons on relational ethics.

Burnout symptoms and recovery processes in eight elite soccer coaches over 10 years

Elite sport can be stressful, which increases the risk for burnout symptoms to develop, especially when not balanced with sufficient recovery. To study the burnout–recovery process, eight elite soccer coaches were followed for 10 years. All eight were active elite coaches at the inception of this study and reported elevated emotional exhaustion scores on Maslach’s Burnout Inventory Educators Survey (MBI-ES). The coaches completed MBI-ES three additional times (year 3, 7, and 10), and they were also interviewed on the same occasions. At the 3-year follow-up, seven of the eight coaches reduced their exhaustion scores. The coach presenting with unchanged scores both at the 3 - and 7-year follow-up was the only one still coaching at the elite level. All coaches revealed during the interviews that they struggled to manage their work–life balance well; some worked too many hours, some experienced difficulty in managing conflicting role-demands, and some wrestled with external pressures. Their approach to recovery was, however, similar. Apart from moving away from coaching at the elite level, they unanimously mentioned that they changed their approach to coaching to make recovery possible. They achieved the latter by, for example, increasing control and delegating responsibility. According to our longitudinal results, burnout frequently regarded as an end-state can decrease over time, provided that decisive action is taken to change situational factors and personal demands. This frequently meant withdrawing from coaching, which in turn explains why coach retention remains a serious challenge for most organizations with teams/athletes competing at the elite level.

Predicting health risk from exposure to trihalomethanes in an Olympic-size indoor swimming pool among elite swimmers and coaches

ABSTRACTDisinfection by-products (DBP) such as trihalomethanes (THM) are formed when chlorine and bromine interact with natural organic materials in chlorine-treated swimming pools. Epidemiological evidence demonstrated an association between exposure to swimming pool environment and adverse health effects. Therefore, this study aimed to assess carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk of long-term exposure of elite swimmers and their coaches. In an Olympic-size indoor chlorinated swimming pool, THM levels were determined in water (21–69 µg/L), in the boundary layer above the water surface (59–397 µg/m3), and in the air surrounding the pool (28–390 µg/m3). These values were used to predict multi-pathway chronic daily intake (CDI), cancer risk (CR) and hazard index (HI). Oral and dermal CDI for swimmers were 2.4 × 10−6 and 2.0 × 10−8, respectively. The swimmers’ inhalation CDI (1.9 × 10−3 mg/kg/day) was estimated to be sixfold higher than levels obtained for coaches (3.3 × 10−4 mg/kg/day). According to guidelines, the HI was acceptable, but CR exceeded the recommended limit for both, coaches (CR: 5.5 × 10−7–8.5 × 10−5; HI: 6.5 × 10−4–1 × 10−1) and swimmers (CR: 1.4 × 10−5–3.6 × 10−4 HI: 1.6 × 10−2–4.3 × 10−1). Our findings provide further support to the need to develop comprehensive guidelines to safeguard the health of individuals involved in elite swimming.

Antecedents and consequences of perceived autonomy support in elite sport: A diary study linking coaches’ off-job recovery and athletes’ performance satisfaction

ObjectivesTo prevent poor health and well-being resulting from the high demands of coaching in elite sport, coaches need to recover during time away from work. This can benefit coaches’ own work experiences as well as their interpersonal behaviour towards athletes. Therefore, the first aim of this study was to investigate within-person associations between elite coaches’ off-job recovery (i.e., physical, cognitive, and emotional detachment from work), physical fatigue, positive affect, work engagement, and perceived autonomy support. The second aim was to investigate within-person associations between elite athletes’ daily perceptions of autonomy support, athlete engagement, and performance satisfaction. DesignA one-week daily diary study was conducted. MethodThirty-one elite coaches (30 males, 1 female) and 96 elite athletes (67 males, 29 females) completed online daily surveys across eight consecutive days. ResultsMultilevel structural equation modelling showed that coaches’ daily off-job physical detachment was negatively related to physical fatigue the next morning, whereas daily off-job emotional detachment was positively related to positive affect the next morning. Physical fatigue and positive affect were positively and negatively related to daily work engagement, respectively, which in turn was positively related to athletes’ perceptions of autonomy support. For athletes, daily athlete engagement fully mediated the relation between daily perceived autonomy support and daily performance satisfaction. ConclusionsThis study shows that off-job recovery, in terms of physical and emotional detachment from work, is not only important for elite coaches’ health, well-being, and work engagement but also benefits elite athletes’ daily sport experiences.

Olympic Games Rio 2016: The Legacy for Coaches

Abstract The purpose of this study is to identify the legacy of the Olympic Games for sports coaches with a special focus on professional education. Thus, in framing this study, two research questions are posed: 1) How did Olympic Games affect the characteristics of the educational activities for coaches? 2) What was the perception about the coaches' education in Brazil, and the legacy of the event for coach's education and career? The methodology used was the content analysis of the websites of National Sports Confederations, Institutions of Higher Education in the State of Rio de Janeiro, and the National and Regional Professional Councils in Brazil, totaling 70 institutions. Concomitantly, interviews were conducted with members of the Ministry of Sport, the Brazilian Olympic Academy, and the Federal Council of Physical Education. The interview questions were grounded on the theoretical framework of Sports Policy Factors Leading To International Sporting Success - SPLISS, which included: 1) the existence of well-trained and experience elite coaches in the country; 2) opportunities to develop their coaching career to become a world-class elite coach; 3) the status of coaches and the recognition of their work as valuable throughout the country. The results indicated that the event brought few benefits to coaches. In addition, according to the interviews, coaches play a secondary role in the organization of the Olympic Games, although they are considered fundamental for the development of the sport. Based on the results, this study discusses the education of coaches and the perceived importance of coaches according to the sports and educational institutions.

Introducing a basic psychological performance demand model for sport and organisations

ABSTRACTThis study presents the development of a basic psychological performance demand model (PDM) for sport and organisations, adopting a process view of performance underpinned by reversal theory (Apter [2001] An introduction to reversal theory. In M. J. Apter (Ed.), Motivational styles in everyday life: A guide to reversal theory (pp. 3-36⁠). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association). Six elite coaches with extensive coaching experience at European, Commonwealth, Olympic and Paralympic Games were interviewed. Their interview statements were analysed using a combination of deductive and inductive analysis procedures for qualitative data. In conjunction with the interviewer, coaches developed PDMs for their specific sports. Analysis of interview data and coaches’ specific PDMs identified four main cross-sport themes or fundamental psychological capabilities required for meeting performance demands. These were: Mastery motivation, Decision making, Execution, and Teamship. The PDM offers a starting framework for a new basic performance model that is novel and pragmatic with potential applicability across sports and organisations. The model is useful in its existing form, but needs further testing, extended practical application and reflection by coaches, athletes, and sport psychologists. It has potential for use in other coaching contexts beyond sport, such as business, leadership development, education, and health.

The Effect of Perceived Managerial Support of Coaches’ Organizational Commitment in Professional Football

The present study utilized the concept of commitment to explain the impact of managerial support on elite coaches’ behaviour in professional football. Specifically, we aimed to examine the level of organizational commitment and managerial support according to the coaching level as well as the league categories of those elite football coaches. Furthermore, we hypothesized that managerial support would predict organizational commitment in elite football. Our sample comprised 300 football coaches drawn from the professional league categories. They completed the organizational commitment scale developed by Allen and Meyer (1990; 1991) and the perceived managerial support questionnaire developed by Giray and Sahin (2012) followed by the inform consent in addition to the information sheet. Results of the present study revealed a significant difference between the level of elite coaches’ organizational commitment and the perceived managerial support especially in terms of their coaching level and the league category. More interestingly, the results from the current study provide the evidence that managerial support predicts elite coaches’ organizational support in professional football. The significance of this research rests in the insight provided into the managerial support that how coaches’ organizational commitment effects and therefore their behaviour through the commitment to the club. We discuss the results in the context of specific dimensions in organizational behaviour in a coaching environment.