Elevation Changes Research Articles

The mitochondrial genome of Bottapotamon fukienense (Brachiura: Potamidae) is fragmented into two chromosomes

BackgroundChina is the hotspot of global freshwater crab diversity, but their wild populations are facing severe pressures associated with anthropogenic factors, necessitating the need to map their taxonomic and genetic diversity and design conservation policies.ResultsHerein, we sequenced the mitochondrial genome of a Chinese freshwater crab species Bottapotamon fukienense, and found that it is fragmented into two chromosomes. We confirmed that fragmentation was not limited to a single specimen or population. Chromosome 1 comprised 15,111 base pairs (bp) and there were 26 genes and one pseudogene (pseudo-nad1) encoded on it. Chromosome 2 comprised 8,173 bp and there were 12 genes and two pseudogenes (pseudo-trnL2 and pseudo-rrnL) encoded on it. Combined, they comprise the largest mitogenome (23,284 bp) among the Potamidae. Bottapotamon was the only genus in the Potamidae dataset exhibiting rearrangements of protein-coding genes. Bottapotamon fukienense exhibited average rates of sequence evolution in the dataset and did not differ in selection pressures from the remaining Potamidae.ConclusionsThis is the first experimentally confirmed fragmentation of a mitogenome in crustaceans. While the mitogenome of B. fukienense exhibited multiple signs of elevated mitogenomic architecture evolution rates, including the exceptionally large size, duplicated genes, pseudogenisation, rearrangements of protein-coding genes, and fragmentation, there is no evidence that this is matched by elevated sequence evolutionary rates or changes in selection pressures.

Holocene thinning in central Greenland controlled by the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream

Ice-core records from the interior of the Greenland ice sheet suggest widespread thinning during the Holocene. However, the recurring underestimation of this thinning in numerical models raises concerns about both the veracity of such reconstructions and the reliability of glaciological models. Recent work suggests the 8000-year-old Northeast Greenland Ice Stream (NEGIS), including a now-extinct northern tributary, may have been an early influence on Greenland ice-sheet dynamics. Yet, the inaccurate reproduction of NEGIS-like dynamics in most models hampers investigation of whether this feature played a role in Holocene ice-sheet thinning. Here we show that grounding-line retreat in northeast Greenland triggers elevation changes at the northern summit via ice-dynamic effects modulated by the paleo NEGIS system. In our simulations, fast ice-stream flow caused by transiently imposed reduced basal shear stress following the northeast retreat explains 55% ( ± 18%) of the estimated ice thinning, showing that ice-stream dynamics is one of the main drivers of the NGRIP Holocene surface elevation drop. Our findings show that the ice-flow in northeast Greenland plays a large role in ice-surface elevation changes in central Greenland.

Skill assessment of a total water level and coastal change forecast during the landfall of a hurricane

The Total Water Level and Coastal Change Forecast (TWL&CC Forecast) provides coastal communities with 6-day notice of potential elevated water levels and coastal change (i.e., dune erosion, overwash, or inundation) on sandy beaches that threatens safety, infrastructure, or resources. This continuously operating model provides hourly information for select regions along U.S. Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean coastlines. The objective of this work is to assess the skill of forecasts during a period of elevated water levels along the coasts of North Carolina (NC) and South Carolina, USA caused by Hurricane Isaias in August 2020, using a combination of observations and model hindcasts. Water levels and waves were observed throughout the storm at three locations near Wrightsville Beach, NC, which provided information to assess forecast skill; a wave buoy offshore, a tide gage at a local pier, and a pressure sensor deployed at the pier. In addition to observations, the non-hydrostatic phase-resolving model SWASH (Simulating WAves till SHore) was forced with hourly wave energy spectra derived from a coupled Delft3D-SWAN simulation during the peak of Isaias, to complement observations by computing nearshore wave height and wave-induced setup and runup at the shoreline. During the storm peak, SWASH-simulated water levels at the sensor position were comparable to those at the maximum landward extent (bias = −0.05 m; gain = 0.26; r2 = 0.99), suggesting that observations at the USGS sensor location were a useful proxy for total water level (TWL; sum of tide, surge and wave runup) at the shoreline that are predicted by the TWL&CC Forecast. The TWL forecast at Wrightsville Beach was consistent with observations from the USGS sensor (bias = −0.38 m and −0.74 m, scatter index = 0.22 and 0.28 for the two forecast model grids considered, respectively; weighted regression considering model uncertainty explained 95 percent of variability in observed TWL). Observed TWL was within the confidence interval of the TWL&CC Forecast for the 5 h at the storm peak. Forecast mean water levels (MWL; sum of tide, surge and wave setup) and tide gage observations were also consistent (bias = 0.07 m and 0.02 m for the forecast model grids; scatter index = 0.46; r2 = 0.80). Forecast MWL at the storm peak was within 0.06 m of the observed MWL from the tide gage for both sites. In the region where Isaias made landfall, eight additional pressure sensors were compared to the peak TWL forecast (bias = 0.14 m; scatter index = 0.18). Forecast TWL explained 90 percent of observed variability in TWL when considering uncertainty of the forecast with a weighted regression. The results demonstrate that wave-driven water levels contributed a significant portion of the forecast TWL during Isaias (52 percent during the three peak hours of the storm), and that TWL were represented using the forecast model. Mean absolute error of the coastal change forecast and observed overwash is 0.4 and 0.14 for the two forecast model grids considered. The skill demonstrated by this computationally efficient method indicates that the forecasting system can provide fast and reliable predictions of TWL across hundreds of km of coastline at sub-km resolution, days to hours in advance of when storms threaten coastal regions.

Incorporating Measurements of Vertical Land Motion in Wetland Surface Elevation Change Analyses

Incorporating Measurements of Vertical Land Motion in Wetland Surface Elevation Change Analyses

Elevation dependent change in ERA5 precipitation and its extremes

Mountain regions are recognised as hot-spots of climate change. Although the existence of an Elevation-Dependent Warming has been extensively confirmed in several mountain areas of the globe, fewer studies have analysed the elevational stratification of temporal trends of other climate variables, and particularly for precipitation. This study analyses changes in mean precipitation and its extremes in ERA5 global reanalysis data in key mountain areas of the globe, along with their elevational dependence, from 1951 to 2020. These include the Tibetan Plateau, the US Rocky Mountains, the Greater Alpine Region, and the Andes, as representative of different latitudes and climatic influences. Our analysis reveals common patterns of elevational dependent change in precipitation and its extremes in most of the mountainous areas, which emerge beyond their geographical differences. A positive elevational gradient of trends of extreme precipitation indices is found in the Tibetan Plateau, the Greater Alpine Region, and the subtropical Andes, highlighting a wetting effect (positive trends) at very high elevations. In contrast, the Rocky Mountains exhibit a negative elevational gradient, with a drying effect (negative trends) increasing with the elevation. Notably, a simple linear regression proved to be effective to describe the stratification of change in the Greater Alpine Region and the Rocky Mountains, whereas more complex vertical patterns need to be considered for the Andes and the Tibetan Plateau. Mean precipitation, heavy (≥\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\ge$$\\end{document}10 mm) precipitation and the length of consecutive wet days show a consistent elevation-dependent stratification within each of the study areas, suggesting possible common driving mechanisms.

Autobiography: A 50-Year Quest for Understanding in Geoscience

Readers will be led down a random path from continental dynamics to paleoclimate. A key to understanding continental dynamics is recognizing that differences in gravitational potential energy per unit area between high and low terrain govern much of large-scale continental deformation. Removal of mantle lithosphere, not just crustal thickening, plays a crucial, but difficult-to-test, role in changes in surface elevation. Although measuring past surface heights remains a challenge, indications of such processes suggest that surface uplift associated with such removal can affect relative plate motion. Climate change, from a warmer to cooler climate, and associated changes in erosion and sedimentation introduce further complications to determining past elevations. The phenomena that led to such cooling include a number of possibilities, but I favor the emergence of islands in the Maritime continent, which transformed the Pacific Ocean from one with a warm eastern tropical Pacific, as during El Niño events, to the present-day La Niña–like background state. Teleconnections from the eastern tropical Pacific to Canada affect the duration of summers and the potential of high-latitude ice to accumulate. ▪Lateral gradients in gravitational potential energy per unit area (GPE), a force per unit length, govern large-scale continental dynamics.▪Removal of mantle lithosphere and thickening of crust raise GPE; knowledge of mean surface elevations provides a test of these processes.▪Climate change from a warmer to cooler climate and from one with less to more erosion can give the false impression of elevation change.▪Emergence of Indonesian islands, more rain over them, a stronger Walker Circulation, and cooler eastern Pacific may have led to ice ages.

Future climate doubles the risk of hydraulic failure in a wet tropical forest.

Future climate presents conflicting implications for forest biomass. We evaluate how plant hydraulic traits, elevated CO2 levels, warming, and changes in precipitation affect forest primary productivity, evapotranspiration, and the risk of hydraulic failure. We used a dynamic vegetation model with plant hydrodynamics (FATES-HYDRO) to simulate the stand-level responses to future climate changes in a wet tropical forest in Barro Colorado Island, Panama. We calibrated the model by selecting plant trait assemblages that performed well against observations. These assemblages were run with temperature and precipitation changes for two greenhouse gas emission scenarios (2086-2100: SSP2-45, SSP5-85) and two CO2 levels (contemporary, anticipated). The risk of hydraulic failure is projected to increase from a contemporary rate of 5.7% to 10.1-11.3% under future climate scenarios, and, crucially, elevated CO2 provided only slight amelioration. By contrast, elevated CO2 mitigated GPP reductions. We attribute a greater variation in hydraulic failure risk to trait assemblages than to either CO2 or climate. Our results project forests with both faster growth (through productivity increases) and higher mortality rates (through increasing rates of hydraulic failure) in the neo-tropics accompanied by certain trait plant assemblages becoming nonviable.

Observing glacier elevation changes from spaceborne optical and radar sensors – an inter-comparison experiment using ASTER and TanDEM-X data

Abstract. Observations of glacier mass changes are key to understanding the response of glaciers to climate change and related impacts, such as regional runoff, ecosystem changes, and global sea level rise. Spaceborne optical and radar sensors make it possible to quantify glacier elevation changes, and thus multi-annual mass changes, on a regional and global scale. However, estimates from a growing number of studies show a wide range of results with differences often beyond uncertainty bounds. Here, we present the outcome of a community-based inter-comparison experiment using spaceborne optical stereo (ASTER) and synthetic aperture radar interferometry (TanDEM-X) data to estimate elevation changes for defined glaciers and target periods that pose different assessment challenges. Using provided or self-processed digital elevation models (DEMs) for five test sites, 12 research groups provided a total of 97 spaceborne elevation-change datasets using various processing approaches. Validation with airborne data showed that using an ensemble estimate is promising to reduce random errors from different instruments and processing methods but still requires a more comprehensive investigation and correction of systematic errors. We found that scene selection, DEM processing, and co-registration have the biggest impact on the results. Other processing steps, such as treating spatial data voids, differences in survey periods, or radar penetration, can still be important for individual cases. Future research should focus on testing different implementations of individual processing steps (e.g. co-registration) and addressing issues related to temporal corrections, radar penetration, glacier area changes, and density conversion. Finally, there is a clear need for our community to develop best practices, use open, reproducible software, and assess overall uncertainty to enhance inter-comparison and empower physical process insights across glacier elevation-change studies.

Differences in structure, physicochemical properties, and in vitro digestibility of three types of starch complexed with tannic acid

The structure of starch often influences its interaction mode and affinity with polyphenols, subsequently impacting the functional properties of starch-polyphenol complexes. This study delved into the multiscale structure, physicochemical properties, and digestive performance of complexes formed by tannic acid (TA) with starches of different polymorphisms (corn starch (CS), potato starch (PS), and pea starch (ES)). The results revealed that TA induced notable changes in the surface morphology and aggregation behavior of starch pastes, with the most pronounced effects observed in ES. Elevated gelatinization enthalpy change and decreased thermal stability were observed in ES-TA complexes, contrary to complexes formed with CS and PS. TA enhanced the crystallinity of three pre-gelatinized starches, facilitating the formation of long-range ordered structures but disrupting short-range ordered structures, with effects more pronounced and TA-concentration-dependent in CS and ES rather than PS. The viscoelasticity of PS gel was strengthened, while that of CS and ES gels was reduced by TA. Digestive outcomes demonstrated that TA increased the resistance to digestion in all three starches, with CS exhibiting the most significant effect, followed by ES and PS. This might be linked to the binding modes of TA with different crystalline starches. The observed variations in regulatory effects on structure and function of starches from different sources combined with TA enhanced our understanding of TA-starch interactions, providing insights into the interaction between polyphenols and starch of different crystalline types.

Posterior corneal stability after small incision lenticule extraction with different optical zones.

To assess the changes in the posterior corneal surface following small incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) with different optical zones. In this retrospective study, 106 eyes of 106 patients who underwent SMILE were recruited 3 years after the procedure. Eyes were divided into two groups according to the size of the surgical optical zone: group A (52 eyes, ≤6.2 mm) and group B (54 eyes, ≥6.5 mm). Posterior central elevation (PCE) and 12 other points at 45°, 135°, 225° and 315° with distances of 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm from the centre were recorded from Pentacam. No iatrogenic keratectasia was identified, and eyes in the two groups showed comparable visual results. The overall trend in posterior corneal elevation changes was consistent for both groups. PCE decreased significantly from 1.33 ± 2.32 to 0.75 ± 2.41 in group A (P = 0.024) and from 0.87 ± 2.61 to 0.06 ± 2.74 in group B (P = 0.003). All points in the central 2 mm region in both groups were reduced postoperatively. In the 4 mm and 6 mm corneal annulus, almost all points at 225°and 315° showed backward displacement, with the most prominent change occurring at 315° in the 6 mm annulus (P < 0.001), indicating no forward protrusion in the inferior area. No forward protrusion in the posterior corneal surface was observed 3 years after SMILE with different optical zones. Comprehensive preoperative measurements are essential for ensuring corneal stability and avoiding iatrogenic keratectasia.

A Decade of Salt Marsh Elevation Change in New York City’s Coastal Urban Parks

A Decade of Salt Marsh Elevation Change in New York City’s Coastal Urban Parks

Integrating topographic factors for effective urban sponge construction in mountainous regions: A case study

The construction of sponge cities in mountainous areas is crucial to achieving high-quality development in these regions. Owing to rugged terrain, significant changes in elevation, and uneven distribution of cities, the construction of sponge cities in mountainous areas faces challenges such as difficulties in clearing mountains and roads, high cost, and varying regional development requirements. However, there is currently limited research focusing on the impact of terrain on sponge city construction plans. In this study, we developed an optimal low impact development (LID) system layout method based on the annual runoff control rate. This study suggests implementing LID plans in stages to balance cost-effectiveness and enhance resilience. The optimized case1_100 scheme, which takes regional differences into account, can effectively achieve a runoff control coefficient of less than 0.25 in 98.86% of the area. Remarkably, this achievement comes at a significantly lower total cost of only 1.22 billion RMB compared to the unoptimized case2_100 scheme (which does not consider regional differences) with a cost of 3.03 billion RMB. Interestingly, the optimized case1_100 plan, selected using the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method, has an LID layout that is closely related to the surface terrain. Structural equation modeling analysis indicates that terrain affects land types, which in turn impacts the surface impermeability and runoff coefficients, ultimately influencing the corresponding LID deployment plan. The coefficients of relative elevation and slope on the final plan are determined as −0.13 and −0.77, respectively, with a high overall explanatory power of 0.84. This indicates that terrain characteristics have a significant impact on the spatial patterns and surface features of typical mountainous cities in China and the optimal LID strategy largely depends on the initial terrain conditions. This study provides valuable insights for optimizing LID construction in sponge cities, particularly in the context of new mountainous urban planning.

Elevation Changes of A’nyemaqen Snow Mountain Revealed with Satellite Remote Sensing

A’nyemaqen Snow Mountain (ASM) is the largest glacier area in the Yellow River source area and has been experiencing significant ablation in recent years. To investigate spatial–temporal elevation changes in ASM, a 21–year Digital Elevation Model (DEM) time series was obtained using the MicMac ASTER (MMASTER) algorithm and ASTER L1A V003 data. It covers the period from January 2002 to January 2023. The mean elevation of ASM decreased by −7.88 ± 3.37 m during this period, with highly spatial variation. The elevation decrease occurred mainly in the lower elevations and opposite in the higher elevations. The corresponding elevation decrease was −12.99 ± 11.29 and −4.45 ± 11.36 m at the southern Yehelong Glacier and the northern Weigeledangxiong Glacier, respectively. Moreover, there exists a temporal variation in ASM. The maximum elevation was observed in February for both ASM and the southern Yehelong Glacier but March for Weigeledangxiong Glacier, with about 1 month lagged. With the elevation time series and climate data from ERA5 datasets, we applied the random forest technique and found that the temperature is the main factor to elevation change in ASM. Furthermore, the response of elevation changes to temperature appeared with a lag and varied with the location. Based on the elevation time series, the ARIMA model was further used to forecast the elevation changes in the next 5 years. All regions will experience the elevation decrease, with a mean decline −1.74 ± 0.39 m and a corresponding rate −0.35 ± 0.08 m/a in ASM. This is similar to that of −0.38 ± 0.16 m/a between 2002 and 2003, showing its stability in the near future.

Evaluation of repeat bathymetric surveys on water surface elevations on the Saint Clair River

The Great Lakes contain 20 percent of the world’s fresh surface water, a drinking source for 30- million people. The system is vital to manufacturing, largely due to efficient transportation of commodities and an abundance of natural resources. Understanding the water balance and predicting future water levels is important for many industries including commercial navigation, the tourist industry, hydropower and shoreline property owners, just to name a few. These predictions require an understanding of both the hydroclimate drivers across the Great Lakes as well as physical changes in the connecting channels that pass water between each lake. Since the International Upper Great Lakes Study began, the St. Clair River has been the topic of conveyance change investigations. This study tests the sensitivity of water surface elevations to small differences in bathymetric changes. Greater than 80 percent of the surveyed points had less than 0.24 m of change between any combination of survey years. Repeat bathymetric surveys collected in 2007, 2012 and 2021, along with hydrodynamic modeling, find changes in water surface elevations associated with bathymetric change are on the sub-centimeter scale. These changes are put into perspective and compared to known anthropogenic and naturally occurring conveyance changes. While these surveys represent a short duration in the observed water level record of the Great Lakes, they represent an important documentation of the geomorphic state of the St. Clair River. These changes can and should be compared to similar future surveys of the river over longer engineering and geomorphic timescales.

Coastal processes and dune stability: Insights from wave transmission and runup modeling

Dunes not only serve as natural landscapes but also act as crucial natural barriers protecting coastlines from storm surges. However, the stability of coastlines and dunes is further affected by climate change-induced sea level rise and increased storm activity. An effective evaluation of dune stability necessitates the collection of parameters such as wave height, changes in dune crest elevation, and dune erosion rates. This research employs wave flumes and high-speed camera technology in laboratory settings to observe and simulate coastal dynamics under overwash and collision regimes. The study investigates wave propagation under both regimes using the XBeach model. In the overwash regime, the model slightly overestimates the values of infragravity waves, whereas its accuracy improved under the collision regime. Moreover, in the overwash regime, higher wave skewness results in more sediment transport to the shore, exhibiting a linear relationship between sediment erosion volume and shoreline retreat distance. Through comparison with time series wave runup data obtained by cameras and traditional predictive formulas, the study validates the applicability of the formula proposed by Stockdon as a predictive tool for wave runup in this experiment. To evaluate dune stability, the study introduces the dimensionless overwash threshold parameter Cs, which is based on wave runup and dune crest elevation, to distinguish between dunes in a collision regime or an overwash regime. These findings help identify dune stability patterns, aiding in early detection of coastal erosion and assisting authorities in ecosystem management.

Dynamic Analysis of Changes in Jambu Riverbed and Banks: Case Study Around Cikuya Bridge

Several cross-sections of the Jambu River, particularly around the Cikuya Bridge, have experienced bank collapse phenomena. This paper interprets the issues related to bank collapse and its impact on the flow capacity of the Jambu River, especially around the Cikuya Bridge. Morphological changes were simulated using a sediment transport model implemented in the Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) 6.3.1, integrated with the ARS-USDA Bank Stability and Toe Erosion Model (BSTEM). The simulation results indicate that over a period of 10 years, the thalweg elevation (the lowest point of a riverbed) of the Jambu River around the Cikuya Bridge is predicted to experience deposition in 17 cross-sections and erosion in 15 cross-sections. The highest deposition occurs at the cross-section below the Cikuya Bridge, with a thalweg elevation change of 0.59 m. This warrants attention as the storage capacity of the cross-section decreases by 7% from the initial condition. Predictions indicate that bank collapse will occur in 7 cross-sections over the next 10 years. This is attributed to the steep slopes of silt and clay banks, exceeding 45 degrees, and the reduced safety factor of bank stability due to groundwater pressure influenced by river discharge fluctuations and tidal effects reaching the Jambu River. Bank collapse impacts the elevation change of the riverbed and adds load to the sediment transport model from the collapsing cross-sections to the downstream sections. Keywords: Jambu River, Cikuya Bridge, Cilacap, sediment transport, bank stability and toe erosion model

Global Attention-Based DEM: A Planet Surface Digital Elevation Model-Generation Method Combined with a Global Attention Mechanism

Digital elevation models (DEMs), which can provide an accurate description of planetary surface elevation changes, play an important role in scientific tasks such as long-distance path planning, terrain analysis, and planetary surface reconstruction. However, generating high-precision planetary DEMs currently relies on expensive equipment together with complex remote sensing technology, thus increasing the cost and cycle of the task. Therefore, it is crucial to develop a cost-effective technology that can produce high-quality DEMs on the surfaces of planets. In this work, we propose a global attention-based DEM generation network (GADEM) to convert satellite imagery into DEMs. The network uses the global attention mechanism (GAM) together with a multi-order gradient loss function during training to recover precise terrain. The experimental analysis on lunar and Martian datasets not only demonstrated the effectiveness and accuracy of GADEM in bright regions, but also showed its promising reconstruction ability in shadowed regions.

Spatial heterogeneity, terminus environment effects and acceleration in mass loss of glaciers and ice caps across Greenland

Greenland's peripheral glaciers and ice caps (GICs) contribute significant amounts of meltwater to the oceans but also affect local economies and livelihoods. Here we created multi-temporal geodetic elevation change datasets to compute mass changes for 6149 glaciers around the entire periphery of Greenland. These glaciers have lost a total of at least 276 ± 55 Gt of ice, or 0.76 ± 0.15 mm sea level equivalent, from their ablation areas between 1978 and 2015. If we assume no mass loss within accumulation areas, then the mean mass balance has been at least −0.10 ± 0.02 m w.e. yr−1. In general, west Greenland glaciers have had a more negative mass balance and experienced accelerated mass loss since 2006 (x 2.7 in south west region, x 5.6 in central west region). Conversely, east Greenland glaciers have generally experienced a decrease in the rate of mass loss. Lake-terminating glaciers have experienced the most negative mass balance, exacerbated by the occurrence of debris cover. These findings quantify great spatial heterogeneity, give context to the recent history of mass loss from GICs, and suggest the importance of including local glacier properties within glacier evolution models.

Assessment of methods for reconstructing Little Ice Age glacier surfaces on the examples of Novaya Zemlya and the Swiss Alps

Climate change since the end of the Little Ice Age (LIA) has driven observed glacier volume loss, significantly contributing to the rise of global sea level. The related calculation of volume change requires knowledge of glacier surfaces from at least two points in time, usually represented by two digital elevation models (DEMs). These are typically derived from photogrammetric techniques using stereo images, but such images do not go back to the LIA. Accordingly, several techniques have been developed to reconstruct LIA glacier surfaces from historic outlines and modern DEMs. Here we first evaluate various surface interpolation methods by replicating modern glacier surfaces from outline elevation points and analyse elevation differences and uncertainties. Secondly, we investigate different GIS-based methods for LIA surface reconstruction including a new method that is based on up-scaling of recent glacier-specific elevation change data and works also for ice caps without lateral moraines. The methods were tested on 90 glaciers (covering 643 km2) in southern Novaya Zemlya and 266 glaciers (524 km2) in the Bernese Alps of Switzerland. As in previous studies, we also found that the Natural Neighbor and Topo to Raster interpolation methods in ESRI's ArcGIS performed best for glacier surface reconstruction and that all methods are challenged by replicating the variable surface curvature of glaciers. The new reconstruction method shows the smallest mean difference to the reference dataset (RMSE of 26.7 vs. 39.8 m). The often neglected small surface lowering in the accumulation area can increase the derived glacier volume changes by 30–50 % and should thus be considered whenever possible. Applying the up-scaling method to both test regions revealed that elevation change rates over the last two decades (−0.8 m a−1 for Novaya Zemlya and -1.14 m a−1 for the Bernese Alps) were much higher than from 1850 until today (−0.13 m a−1 and -0.22 m a−1, respectively).

Carbon Emission Reduction of Reclaimed Water Use Substitution for Inter-Basin Water Transfer and Sustainability of Urban Water Supply in Valley Area

Urbanization confronts the dual challenges of water scarcity and environmental degradation, prompting the exploration of diverse water sources for mitigating these impacts. Inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) has emerged as a solution to balance urban water demand and supply in areas with local water shortages. While IBWT can deliver high-quality water over long distances, it is costly, often contributing significantly to carbon emissions. Reclaimed water use (RWU) presents a promising alternative to address this dilemma. In this paper, a valley region of Chongqing municipality in Southwest China, which is confronted with water and environmental risks resulting from rapid urbanization, was explored and discussed as a case study to assess the potential impact of RWU on reducing carbon emissions as compared to IBWT. A method of accumulative accounting was adapted to calculate and sum up carbon emission intensities at various stages, revealing that the operational carbon emission intensities of IBWT and RWU are 0.7447 KgCO2/m3 and 0.1880 KgCO2/m3, respectively. This indicates that RWU substitution can reduce carbon emissions by 0.5567 KgCO2/m3 or 75%. This paper further elucidates the mechanism behind carbon emission reduction, highlighting the energy-saving benefits of using reclaimed water locally without recourse to extensive transportation or elevation changes. Additionally, this result presents three scenarios of reclaimed water use, including urban miscellaneous water, river flow replenishment, and agricultural irrigation in relation to their substitution effects and environmental impacts. Estimates of carbon emission reductions from reclaimed water use were projected at the planned scale, with the maximum potential of reclaimed water utilization predicted. Finally, this paper proposes an enhanced strategy to identify and prioritize factors affecting reclaimed water utilization and the effect of carbon emission reduction. This paper aims to facilitate the establishment of a robust legal, institutional, and managerial framework while fostering interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral cooperation mechanisms in valley urban areas. The methodology employed can be universally applied to other regions grappling with severe water stress, thereby facilitating endeavors toward carbon reduction and contributing significantly to the attainment of water sustainability.