Elevated Growth Temperatures Research Articles

Direct growth of hexagonal InN films on 6H-SiC by radio-frequency metal-organic molecular-beam epitaxy

Wurtzite InN films were prepared on a 6H-SiC substrate by a self-designed plasma-assisted metal-organic molecular-beam epitaxy system without a buffer layer. In this article, the authors investigate the structural and optical properties of InN films grown on a 6H-SiC substrate. The crystallinity and microstructure of the thin film were further characterized by x-ray diffraction (XRD), field-emission scanning-electron microscopy, and transmission-electron microscopy. Electrical and optical properties were evaluated by Hall and photoluminescence (PL) measurements. XRD results indicate that InN film grown at 500 °C is epitaxially grown along the c-axis orientation. The two-dimensional growth mode is clearly shown in scanning-electron microscope images. Room-temperature PL spectra show that the emission peak is located at ∼0.83 eV due to the Burstein–Moss effect. In addition, the crystalline InN samples crack and peel away from the substrate at elevated growth temperature. This phenomenon may be attributed to lattice mismatch and grain coalescence while increasing the growth temperature. The narrow window of the growth temperature plays an important role in engineering the InN epitaxial growth.

Tellurium doping of InGaP for tunnel junction applications in triple junction solar cells

Tellurium doped InGaP is an ideal material for the n side of a tunnel junction for triple junction solar cell structures grown by MOCVD. In this paper, we discuss the growth process for abrupt turn-on and turn-off of tellurium in InGaP when InGaP must be highly doped and uniformly doped with tellurium to provide for epitaxial films suitable for tunnel junctions. Results show that tellurium pre-doping of the layer before InGaP growth provides for a sharp turn-on and that using a growth pause at elevated growth temperatures after InGaP provides for a sharp turn-off in the doping profile. Results from a series of experiments in which partial pressure of phosphine and growth temperature were varied show that doping levels of >1×10 19 cm −3 can be achieved uniformly over 4 in. diameter germanium wafers by lowering growth temperature and V/III ratio. Results also showed that high tellurium doping levels strain InGaP and adjustment of indium mole fraction in InGaP is required to produce smooth epitaxial layers. These MOCVD growth processes can be incorporated in the growth of tunnel junction layers used in the production of triple junction solar cells.

Highly Uniform Characteristics of GaN Nanorods Grown on Si(111) by Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition

Gallium nitride (GaN) nanorod (NR) arrays were grown on a gold-coated Si(111) substrate by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The synthesized single GaN NRs were characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), and cathodoluminescence (CL) analysis. The HR-TEM images and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns demonstrated that the GaN NRs were of high quality with a single-crystal wurtzite structure and free from defects. The GaN NRs were observed to have a uniform diameter ranging from 40 to 70 nm, length of up to 1 µm, and a sharp symmetrical pyramid-like tip at the top. The pyramid-like tip was attributed to the dissociation of nitrogen atoms by the cracking of ammonia (NH3) at the elevated growth temperature. Furthermore, there was no sign of any metal or alloy cluster at the end of the NRs. Thus, the growth of the GaN NRs does not occur by the typical vapor–liquid–solid (VLS) mechanism.

An Extreme Thermophile,Thermus thermophilus, Is a Polyploid Bacterium

An extremely thermophilic bacterium, Thermus thermophilus HB8, is one of the model organisms for systems biology. Its genome consists of a chromosome (1.85 Mb), a megaplasmid (0.26 Mb) designated pTT27, and a plasmid (9.3 kb) designated pTT8, and the complete sequence is available. We show here that T. thermophilus is a polyploid organism, harboring multiple genomic copies in a cell. In the case of the HB8 strain, the copy number of the chromosome was estimated to be four or five, and the copy number of the pTT27 megaplasmid seemed to be equal to that of the chromosome. It has never been discussed whether T. thermophilus is haploid or polyploid. However, the finding that it is polyploid is not surprising, as Deinococcus radiodurans, an extremely radioresistant bacterium closely related to Thermus, is well known to be a polyploid organism. As is the case for D. radiodurans in the radiation environment, the polyploidy of T. thermophilus might allow for genomic DNA protection, maintenance, and repair at elevated growth temperatures. Polyploidy often complicates the recognition of an essential gene in T. thermophilus as a model organism for systems biology.

Longevity and temperature response of pollen as affected by elevated growth temperature and carbon dioxide in peanut and grain sorghum

It is important to understand the effects of environmental conditions during plant growth on longevity and temperature response of pollen. Objectives of this study were to determine the influence of growth temperature and/or carbon dioxide (CO 2) concentration on pollen longevity and temperature response of peanut and grain sorghum pollen. Plants were grown at daytime maximum/nighttime minimum temperatures of 32/22, 36/26, 40/30 and 44/34 °C at ambient (350 μmol mol −1) and at elevated (700 μmol mol −1) CO 2 from emergence to maturity. At flowering, pollen longevity was estimated by measuring in vitro pollen germination at different time intervals after anther dehiscence. Temperature response of pollen was measured by germinating pollen on artificial growth medium at temperatures ranging from 12 to 48 °C in incubators at 4 °C intervals. Elevated growth temperature decreased pollen germination percentage in both crop species. Sorghum pollen had shorter longevity than peanut pollen. There was no influence of CO 2 on pollen longevity. Pollen longevity of sorghum at 36/26 °C was about 2 h shorter than at 32/22 °C. There was no effect of growth temperature or CO 2 on cardinal temperatures ( T min, T opt, and T max) of pollen in both crop species. The T min, T opt, and T max identified at different growth temperatures and CO 2 levels were similar at 14.9, 30.1, and 45.6 °C, respectively for peanut pollen. The corresponding values for sorghum pollen were 17.2, 29.4, and 41.7 °C. In conclusion, pollen longevity and pollen germination percentage was decreased by growth at elevated temperature, and pollen developed at elevated temperature and/or elevated CO 2 did not have greater temperature tolerance.

Inverted Ge islands in {111} faceted Si pits—a novel approach towards SiGe islands with higher aspect ratio

A detailed study of the so far unexplored Ge island nucleation on Si (001) substrates patterned with {111} faceted pyramidal pits is reported. The pits are defined by an anisotropic wet-chemical etch through a SiNx hard mask. Due to the self-limiting of the wet etch, an extremely uniform pit pattern is achieved. On these substrates, Ge layers were grown by solid source molecular beam epitaxy at various growth temperatures TGe. For TGe=550 °C, Ge fills the pits in the form of inverted {111} pyramids with a rounded apex and a (001)-oriented top surface. These islands have aspect ratios much larger than upright pyramids and domes that are usually obtained on substrates with cylindrical pits fabricated by lithographic techniques and reactive ion etching. Based on the experimentally determined shape, three-dimensional (3D) energy level calculations in an envelop function approach have been performed for the inverted pyramids. They show that, due to the orientation of the pyramid square base along ⟨110⟩ directions, the overlap between the hole ground states and electron states confined to the Si conduction band valleys perpendicular to the growth direction is much larger than for upright SiGe domes and {105} pyramids. For elevated growth temperatures around 700 °C, already a Ge coverage of five monolayers induces a strong Si transfer into the {111} pits, effectively converting them towards {1 1 10} faceted ones.

Identification of Components Associated with Thermal Acclimation of Photosystem II in Synechocystis sp. PCC6803

BackgroundPhotosystem II (PSII) is the most thermally sensitive component of photosynthesis. Thermal acclimation of this complex activity is likely to be critically important to the ability of photosynthetic organisms to tolerate temperature changes in the environment.Methodology/FindingsWe have analysed gene expression using whole-genome microarrays and monitored alterations in physiology during acclimation of PSII to elevated growth temperature in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. PSII acclimation is complete within 480 minutes of exposure to elevated temperature and is associated with a highly dynamic transcriptional response. 176 genes were identified and classified into seven distinct response profile groups. Response profiles suggest the existence of an early transient phase and a sustained phase to the acclimation response. The early phase was characterised by induction of general stress response genes, including heat shock proteins, which are likely to influence PSII thermal stability. The sustained phase consisted of acclimation-specific alterations that are involved in other cellular processes. Sustained responses included genes involved in phycobillisome structure and modification, photosynthesis, respiration, lipid metabolism and motility. Approximately 60% of genes with sustained altered expression levels have no known function. The potential role of differentially expressed genes in thermotolerance and acclimation is discussed. We have characterised the acclimation physiology of selected gene ‘knockouts’ to elucidate possible gene function in the response.Conclusions/SignificanceAll mutants show lower PSII rates under normal growth conditions. Basal PSII thermotolerance was affected by mutations in clpB1, cpcC2, hspA, htpG and slr1674. Final PSII thermotolerance was affected by mutations in cpcC2, hik34, hspA and hypA1, suggesting that these gene products play roles in long-term thermal acclimation of PSII.

Electron microscopy of InGaN nanopillars spontaneously grown on Si(111) substrates

AbstractThe mopholological, structural and chemical properties of InxGa1–xN nanopillars directly grown on Si (111) substrates, by molecular beam epitaxy, were investigated employing transmission electron microscopy related techniques. Single crystalline, single phase nanopillars were observed exhibiting a low density of crystal defects, which contribute to good crystal quality. Initial nanostructures merge through subgrain boundaries to form final nanopillars. Energy dispersive X‐ray analysis revealed a very low InN mole fraction near the interface with the substrate, owing to high desorption rates from the elevated growth temperature, and gradually higher In incorporation rates near the tips of the nanopillars. This compositional fluctuation is maintained due to poor segregation of indium adatoms along the c‐axis of the nanopillars towards the Si interface. A second species of long and narrow nanopillars was found In‐free. (© 2010 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Temperature Modulates Plant Defense Responses through NB-LRR Proteins

An elevated growth temperature often inhibits plant defense responses and renders plants more susceptible to pathogens. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this modulation are unknown. To genetically dissect this regulation, we isolated mutants that retain disease resistance at a higher growth temperature in Arabidopsis. One such heat-stable mutant results from a point mutation in SNC1, a NB-LRR encoding gene similar to disease resistance (R) genes. Similar mutations introduced into a tobacco R gene, N, confer defense responses at elevated temperature. Thus R genes or R-like genes involved in recognition of pathogen effectors are likely the causal temperature-sensitive component in defense responses. This is further supported by snc1 intragenic suppressors that regained temperature sensitivity in defense responses. In addition, the SNC1 and N proteins had a reduction of nuclear accumulation at elevated temperature, which likely contributes to the inhibition of defense responses. These findings identify a plant temperature sensitive component in disease resistance and provide a potential means to generate plants adapting to a broader temperature range.

The effect of structural parameters and growth temperature on the electron density in asymmetric double-2DEGs

We report on growth and low-temperature transport of Ga(Al)As-based asymmetric double two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) structures consisting of a quantum well (QW) stacked on top of a normal heterojunction. Our data show that the electron density of both parallel 2DEGs can be reliably matched just by varying a single growth parameter namely the width of spacer 2 which determines the electron density in the QW. This finding is independent of growth temperature and QW width although segregation of Si dopant atoms especially at elevated growth temperatures has a remarkable impact on the QW electron density. The best sample with exact match of the carrier densities exhibits metrological quality of the quantized Hall resistance with a relative standard deviation of five parts in 109 from the nominal value RK-90/4 at filling factor 2.

Crystallization-dependent magnetic properties of Mn 1.56Co 0.96Ni 0.48O 4 thin films

The effects of magnetic property dependence of the Mn 1.56Co 0.96Ni 0.48O 4 (MCN) films on crystallization are investigated in the growth temperature of 450–750 °C. With the growth temperature increase, both the crystalline quality and the grain size improve. The MCN films exhibit paramagnetic to ferromagnetic transition and the paramagnetic parts fit to the modified Curie–Weiss law. The ferromagnetic couplings of the magnetic ions in the MCN films enhance at elevated growth temperature. The saturation magnetization at 5 K increases with increasing growth temperature, but coercive field decreases monotonously. The magnetic properties of the MCN films strongly depend on their microstructures.

Strain-induced microstructural evolution in epitaxial Fe/MgO layers grown on InxGa1−xAs(001) substrates

Epitaxial Fe/MgO layers have been grown on InxGa1−xAs substrates to examine the epitaxial relationship and the morphological variation with respect to indium content, x and the growth temperature of MgO interlayer. The in-plane epitaxial relationship of Fe[010]//MgO[11¯0]//InxGa1−xAs[11¯0] is found in the structures of all x values for 4 nm thick MgO layers grown at room temperature. Epitaxial MgO interlayers grow in two-dimensional layer regardless of x while the morphology of subsequent Fe changes from two-dimensional layer to three-dimensional islands with the increase of x. Furthermore, the average size of Fe islands becomes smaller at higher x value due to enhanced underlying strain. The elevated growth temperature of MgO has led to partial strain relaxation, resulting in the suppression of three-dimensional Fe island formation.

On the origin of threading dislocations in GaN films

A series of GaN films were grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy on nitrided sapphire using an initial annealed low-temperature nucleation layer (LT-NL), without employing any conventional threading dislocation (TD) reduction methods. Film thicknesses ranging from the LT-NL to 500 nm were used. The island network morphology was investigated at each growth stage using atomic force microscopy. Data from cathodoluminescence studies showed initially uniform luminescence, followed by the gradual development of bright (low TD) regions which had lateral sizes different from the island sizes at all times and which continued to increase in size after coalescence. The formation of low-energy arrays of a-type TDs also continued after island coalescence. X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and AFM data indicated that the highest (a+c)-type TD densities were found in the LT-NL, but subsequently decreased due to TD loop formation (promoted by island facets) and reaction to produce a-type TDs. a-type TD densities were also high in the LT-NL but subsequently increased slightly, due to the reaction of (a+c)-type TDs. A very sharp dynamical ‘correlation’ peak was also observed in XRD of the LT-NL, related to TDs with an a-component. Furthermore, defect formation was observed within the LT-NL using high-resolution TEM. These data are consistent with TD formation predominantly in the LT-NL, followed by TD movement at elevated growth temperatures. Initially, coalesced films had a high TD density with a spatially random TD arrangement, but progressively altered into a lower TD density, spatially clustered arrangement during growth. This type of microstructure may mistakenly be interpreted as arising from island coalescence.

A Genome-Scale Proteomic Screen Identifies a Role for DnaK in Chaperoning of Polar Autotransporters inShigella

Autotransporters are outer membrane proteins that are widely distributed among gram-negative bacteria. Like other autotransporters, the Shigella autotransporter IcsA, which is required for actin assembly during infection, is secreted at the bacterial pole. In the bacterial cytoplasm, IcsA localizes to poles and potential cell division sites independent of the cell division protein FtsZ. To identify bacterial proteins involved in the targeting of IcsA to the pole in the bacterial cytoplasm, we screened a genome-scale library of Escherichia coli proteins tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP) for those that displayed a localization pattern similar to that of IcsA-GFP in cells that lack functional FtsZ using a strain carrying a temperature-sensitive ftsZ allele. For each protein that mimicked the localization of IcsA-GFP, we tested whether IcsA localization was dependent on the presence of the protein. Although these approaches did not identify a polar receptor for IcsA, the cytoplasmic chaperone DnaK both mimicked IcsA localization at elevated temperatures as a GFP fusion and was required for the localization of IcsA to the pole in the cytoplasm of E. coli. DnaK was also required for IcsA secretion at the pole in Shigella flexneri. The localization of DnaK-GFP to poles and potential cell division sites was dependent on elevated growth temperature and independent of the presence of IcsA or functional FtsZ; native DnaK was found to be enhanced at midcell and the poles. A second Shigella autotransporter, SepA, also required DnaK for secretion, consistent with a role of DnaK more generally in the chaperoning of autotransporter proteins in the bacterial cytoplasm.

Seed Composition, Seedling Emergence and Early Seedling Vigour of Red Kidney Bean Seed Produced at Elevated Temperature and Carbon Dioxide

AbstractUnderstanding the influence of growth temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) on seed quality in terms of seed composition, subsequent seedling emergence and early seedling vigour is important under present and future climates. The objective of this study was to determine the combined effects of elevated temperature and CO2 during seed‐filling of parent plants on seed composition, subsequent seedling emergence and seedling vigour of red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Plants of cultivar ‘Montcalm’, were grown at daytime maximum/nighttime minimum sinusoidal temperature regimes of 28/18 and 34/24 °C at ambient CO2 (350 μmol mol−1) and at elevated CO2 (700 μmol mol−1) from emergence to maturity. Seed size and seed composition at maturity and subsequent per cent emergence, early seedling vigour (rate of development) and seedling dry matter production were measured. Elevated CO2 did not influence seed composition, emergence, or seedling vigour of seeds produced either at 28/18 or 34/24 °C. Seed produced at 34/24 °C had smaller seed size, decreased glucose concentration, but significantly increased concentrations of sucrose and raffinose compared to 28/18 °C. Elevated growth temperatures during seed production decreased the subsequent per cent emergence and seedling vigour of the seeds and seedling dry matter production of seed produced either at ambient or elevated CO2.

Enhancement in leaf photosynthesis and upregulation of Rubisco in the C4 sorghum plant at elevated growth carbon dioxide and temperature occur at early stages of leaf ontogeny.

Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration and temperature will influence photosynthesis, growth and yield of agronomic crops. To investigate effects of elevated CO2 and high temperature on leaf gas exchanges, activities of Rubisco and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and growth of grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench), plants were grown in controlled environments at day-time maximum/night-time minimum temperatures of 30/20°C or 36/26°C at ambient (350 µmol mol-1) or elevated (700 µmol mol-1) CO2. Gas-exchange rates, activities of Rubisco and PEPC and growth parameters (leaf, stem and total dry weights) were determined at different stages of leaf development. Between 6 and 25 days after leaf tip emergence, leaf carbon exchange rate (CER) of elevated CO2 plants was greater at 30/20°C and 36/26°C than that of ambient CO2 plants at the same temperatures. The positive response of CER to elevated CO2 was greater in young leaves than in old leaves. In young leaves, elevated CO2 enhanced Rubisco activity at 30/20°C and 36/26°C, whereas PEPC activity was not affected by elevated CO2 at 30/20°C but was marginally enhanced at 36/26°C. At 30/20°C, growth parameters were not affected by elevated CO2 until 50 days after sowing (DAS); at 36/26°C, they were progressively enhanced by elevated CO2 to as high as 49 to 62% by 50 DAS. Leaf CER and Rubisco activity were enhanced by elevated CO2 at early stages of leaf ontogeny for the C4 grain sorghum. Such enhancement should have a significant role in dry matter production under elevated CO2.

Real-time PCR Analysis of the Heat-Shock Response of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans ATCC 23270

As one of the most important bioleaching bacterial species, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is subjected to different kinds of environmental stress such as temperature changes, presence of some toxic heavy metals or pH changes, which normally take place in bioleaching operations and may affect the activity of the bacteria. To obtain further knowledge of the protective mechanisms employed by A. ferrooxidans in response to elevated growth temperature, temporal gene expression profiles were examined in cells subjected to heat stress by using real-time PCR. The majority of predicted genes, including those encoding chaperones and heat-shock proteins, were significantly up-regulated (P < 0.05 and the fold change ≥ 2.0) over a 25-min period after upshift to the heatshock temperature (from 30 to 42 °C) and then decrease to readjust their transcript levels to a new steady state at 42 °C. Finally, based on the gene expression data and computational analysis, a putative regulatory site having T-T-T-T-T-T-n-n in the -35 region and n-T-A-T-n-A-T-C in the -10 region with average 19 base pairs separating the two elements was predicted upstream of a number of heat-inducible genes.

Identification and Characterization of σS, a Novel Component of the Staphylococcus aureus Stress and Virulence Responses

S. aureus is a highly successful pathogen that is speculated to be the most common cause of human disease. The progression of disease in S. aureus is subject to multi-factorial regulation, in response to the environments encountered during growth. This adaptive nature is thought to be central to pathogenesis, and is the result of multiple regulatory mechanisms employed in gene regulation. In this work we describe the existence of a novel S. aureus regulator, an as yet uncharacterized ECF-sigma factor (σS), that appears to be an important component of the stress and pathogenic responses of this organism. Using biochemical approaches we have shown that σS is able to associates with core-RNAP, and initiate transcription from its own coding region. Using a mutant strain we determined that σS is important for S. aureus survival during starvation, extended exposure to elevated growth temperatures, and Triton X-100 induced lysis. Coculture studies reveal that a σS mutant is significantly outcompeted by its parental strain, which is only exacerbated during prolonged growth (7 days), or in the presence of stressor compounds. Interestingly, transcriptional analysis determined that under standard conditions, S. aureus SH1000 does not initiate expression of sigS. Assays performed hourly for 72h revealed expression in typically background ranges. Analysis of a potential anti-sigma factor, encoded downstream of sigS, revealed it to have no obvious role in the upregulation of sigS expression. Using a murine model of septic arthritis, sigS-mutant infected animals lost significantly less weight, developed septic arthritis at significantly lower levels, and had increased survival rates. Studies of mounted immune responses reveal that sigS-mutant infected animals had significantly lower levels of IL-6, indicating only a weak immunological response. Finally, strains of S. aureus lacking sigS were far less able to undergo systemic dissemination, as determined by bacterial loads in the kidneys of infected animals. These results establish that σS is an important component in S. aureus fitness, and in its adaptation to stress. Additionally it appears to have a significant role in its pathogenic nature, and likely represents a key component in the S. aureus regulatory network.

Growth of carbon nanofibers on carbon fabric with Ni nanocatalyst prepared using pulseelectrodeposition

The pulse electrodeposition (PED) technique was utilized to deposit nanosized(≤10 nm) Ni catalysts on carbon fabric (CF). Via an in situ potential profile, the PED techniquecan control the Ni catalyst loading, which is an important parameter for the growth ofcarbon nanofibers (CNFs) on CF. The preparation of CNF-coated CF (carpet-like CF) wascarried out in a thermal chemical vapor deposition system with an optimum loading of Nicatalysts deposited in the PED pulse range from 20 to 320 cycles. CNFs grown at813 K using different pulse cycles had a narrow diameter distribution, around15 ± 5 nmto 29 ± 7 nm; they have a hydrophobic surface, like lotus leaves. Transmission electron microscopyimages confirmed the graphene structural transformation of CNFs with the growthtemperature. Solid wire CNFs were initially grown at 813 K with graphene edges exposedon the external surface. At elevated growth temperatures (1073 and 1173 K), bamboo-likeCNFs were obtained, with herringbone structures and intersectional hollow cores.

Nucleotide Composition and Amino Acid Usage in AT-Rich Hyperthermophilic Species

Nucleotide composition, codon usage and amino acid content are important molecular signatures that vary in different groups of organisms. AT-rich (or GC poor) hyperthermophiles have relatively been unexplored in these aspects. In this study, we have examined the compositional characteristics of AT rich genomes viz. Methanococcus jannaschii, Sulfolobus solfataricus, Sulfolobus tokodaii and Nanoarcheum equitans by their comparison with four mesophiles having similar genomic GC content. The analysis revealed a significant increase in purine content of ORFs due to increase in guanine content. Moreover, the influence of dinucleotide composition on protein thermostability was found even larger. Accordingly, increased usage of codons that are constituted of dinucleotides RR was observed. Arginine, proline, valine and tyrosine were most abundant amino acids in hyperthermophilic proteomes, and similar bias was seen when dipeptidic composition of proteins was compared. Further amino acid composition analysis of alpha helices indicates an increased usage of E, K, R and decreased usage of N and Q. Summing up, the study suggested that elevated growth temperature im- pose selective constraints at all the three molecular levels- nucleotide composition, codon usage and amino acid content.