Elephant Research Articles

Poaching of African Elephants Indirectly Decreases Population Growth Through Lowered Orphan Survival

Summary Prolonged maternal care is vital to the well-being of many long-lived mammals. 1 The premature loss of maternal care, i.e., orphaning, can reduce offspring survival even after weaning is complete. 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 However, ecologists have not explicitly assessed how orphaning impacts population growth. We examined the impact of orphaning on population growth in a free-ranging African elephant population, using 19 years of individual-based demographic monitoring data. We compared orphan and nonorphan survival, performed a sensitivity analysis to understand how population growth responds to the probability of being orphaned and orphan survival, and investigated how sensitivity to these orphan parameters changed with level of poaching. Orphans were found to have lower survival compared to nonorphaned age mates, and population growth rate was negatively correlated with orphaning probability and positively correlated with orphan survival. This demonstrates that, in addition to its direct effects, adult elephant death indirectly decreases population growth through orphaning. Population growth rate’s sensitivity to orphan survival increased for the analysis parameterized using only data from years of more poaching, indicating orphan survival is more important for population growth as orphaning increases. We conclude that orphaning substantively decreases population growth for elephants and should not be overlooked when quantifying the impacts of poaching. Moreover, we conclude that population models characterizing systems with extensive parental care benefit from explicitly incorporating orphan stages and encourage research into quantifying effects of orphaning in other social mammals of conservation concern.

Characteristic of habitat suitability for the Asian elephant in the fragmented Ulu Jelai Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia

The Asian elephant has been listed as an endangered species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List since 1986. In Peninsular Malaysia, the elephant population continues to decline, threatened by habitat degradation. Distinguishing their potential habitats is important in mitigating the impacts of forest fragmentation. This study aimed to predict the potential habitats of elephants in the fragmented forest landscape of Ulu Jelai Forest Reserve and to identify its characteristics. Habitat suitability was evaluated using several environmental variables––elevation, slope, land use, lithology, distance to river and distance from urban areas. The results showed that the distribution of suitable habitats mainly occurred in the eastern region of the study area. Elephant habitat prediction, using maximum entropy modelling, indicated that their most suitable habitat was located in a forested area that was greatly influenced by altitude and river proximity, while urban and agricultural areas cause forest fragmentation and restricted suitability. The prediction of wildlife habitats using maximum entropy modelling is a favourable and effective tool for improving the management and conservation planning of wildlife in the region.

Assessing population structure and body condition to inform conservation strategies for a small isolated Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in southwest China.

The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in Nangunhe National Nature Reserve in China represents a unique evolutionary branch that has been isolated for more than twenty years from neighboring populations in Myanmar. The scarcity of information on population structure, sex ratio, and body condition makes it difficult to develop effective conservation measures for this elephant population. Twelve individuals were identified from 3,860 valid elephant images obtained from February to June 2018 (5,942 sampling effort nights) at 52 camera sites. Three adult females, three adult males, one subadult male, two juvenile females, two juvenile males and one male calf were identified. The ratio of adult females to adult males was 1:1, and the ratio of reproductive ability was 1:0.67, indicating the scarcity of reproductive females as an important limiting factor to population growth. A population density of 5.32 ± 1.56 elephants/100 km2 was estimated using Spatially Explicit Capture Recapture (SECR) models. The health condition of this elephant population was assessed using an 11-point scale of Body Condition Scoring (BCS). The average BCS was 5.75 (n = 12, range 2-9), with adult females scoring lower than adult males. This isolated population is extremely small and has an inverted pyramid age structure and therefore is at a high risk of extinction. We propose three plans to improve the survival of this population: improving the quality and quantity of food resources, removing fencing and establishing corridors between the east and wet parts of Nangunhe reserve.

Utah Politics: The Elephant in the Room

Utah Politics: The Elephant in the Room

Reference Intervals for Hematology and Clinical Chemistry for the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana).

The African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is listed as vulnerable, with wild populations threatened by habitat loss and poaching. Clinical pathology is used to detect and monitor disease and injury, however existing reference interval (RI) studies for this species have been performed with outdated analytical methods, small sample sizes or using only managed animals. The aim of this study was to generate hematology and clinical chemistry RIs, using samples from the free-ranging elephant population in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Hematology RIs were derived from EDTA whole blood samples automatically analyzed (n = 23); manual PCV measured from 48 samples; and differential cell count results (n = 51) were included. Clinical chemistry RIs were generated from the results of automated analyzers on stored serum samples (n = 50). Reference intervals were generated according to American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology guidelines with a strict exclusion of outliers. Hematology RIs were: PCV 34–49%, RBC 2.80–3.96 × 1012/L, HGB 116–163 g/L, MCV 112–134 fL, MCH 35.5–45.2 pg, MCHC 314–364 g/L, PLT 182–386 × 109/L, WBC 7.5–15.2 × 109/L, segmented heterophils 1.5–4.0 × 109/L, band heterophils 0.0–0.2 × 109/L, total monocytes 3.6–7.6 × 109/L (means for “regular” were 35.2%, bilobed 8.6%, round 3.9% of total leukocytes), lymphocytes 1.1–5.5 × 109/L, eosinophils 0.0–0.9 × 109/L, basophils 0.0–0.1 × 109/L. Clinical chemistry RIs were: albumin 41–55 g/L, ALP 30–122 U/L, AST 9–34 U/L, calcium 2.56–3.02 mmol/L, CK 85–322 U/L, GGT 7–16 U/L, globulin 30–59 g/L, magnesium 1.15–1.70 mmol/L, phosphorus 1.28–2.31 mmol/L, total protein 77–109 g/L, urea 1.2–4.6 mmol/L. Reference intervals were narrower than those reported in other studies. These RI will be helpful in the future management of injured or diseased elephants in national parks and zoological settings.

Stakeholder attitudes toward the incentives used to mitigate human-elephant conflict in southern Africa: A news media content analysis

African elephant populations are under substantial anthropogenic pressure, but these are not spatially homogenous. Elephant densities are high in parts of southern Africa, leading to conflict with human populations. Conservationists working to mitigate impacts of human-elephant conflict (HEC) will turn to mechanisms or incentives to achieve this, mostly financial (such as compensation, or income generation through tourism). Little is known about the attitudes of stakeholders' (such as farmers) toward financial incentives used to mitigate conflict. Here we carried out a content analysis of stakeholder evaluative expression, or valence, using reports from the southern African news media. We sourced 428 separate news articles over the past ten years, and quantitatively assessed stakeholder valence on the financial mechanisms used to mitigate human-elephant conflict. We found that stakeholder attitudes or valence differed across countries and that stakeholders were generally positive, even with regard to controversial mechanisms such as trophy hunting. Our work has some implication for conservation policy.

The importance of buffer zones in woody vegetation conservation in areas that combine mega-fauna and anthropogenic disturbance: The case of Save Valley landscape, south-eastern Zimbabwe

This study evaluated the influence of human and elephant (Loxodonta africana) utilization of woody vegetation across three land use categories; a protected conservation area (Save Valley Conservancy, SVC), a buffer zone and the adjacent communal lands of Mutema-Musikavanhu communities in the Save Valley landscape, south-eastern Zimbabwe. A total of 45 plots were assessed with 15 plots randomly placed in each of the three treatments. The following attributes were compared: tree, shrub and sapling density, tree and shrub species diversity, tree height, tree canopy cover and basal area, elephant dung density, and lastly, elephant, fire and human impacts (e.g., stump and coppicing density) on woody vegetation. Although there were no significant treatment effects (P > 0.05) on fire damage levels, number of stems per tree, alien woody plant density and coppiced woody plant density, human activities and elephant herbivory affected the rest of the measured attributes. Human and elephant herbivory disturbances were intermediate in intensity within the buffer zone where the maximum woody species diversity and the largest basal area were recorded. Elephant impact was high in the SVC and human harvesting high in the communal areas with variable negative consequences for woody vegetation (e.g., increased shrubbiness in SVC and lower tree densities in communal areas). It is likely that with an increasing population of elephants in the SVC and human population increases in Mutema-Musikavanhu communal area, severe disturbance of woodlands is likely to escalate in the Save Valley landscape. At present, the buffer zone serves as a refuge to woodlands, however there is need for continuous monitoring of woodlands across varying land use categories to inform future conservation strategies.

Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Is Omnipresent in Elephants in European Zoos and an Asian Elephant Range Country.

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) may cause acute, often lethal, hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) in young elephants. Prevalence of EEHV in different elephant populations is still largely unknown. In order to improve diagnostic tools for the detection of EEHV infections and to obtain insight into its spread among elephants, we developed novel ELISAs based on EEHV1A gB and gH/gL. Performance of the ELISAs was assessed using sera from 41 European zoo elephants and 69 semi-captive elephants from Laos, one of the Asian elephant range countries. Sera from all (sub)adult animals tested (≥5 years of age) showed high reactivity with both gB and gH/gL, indicating that EEHV prevalence has been highly underestimated so far. Reactivity towards the antigens was generally lower for sera of juvenile animals (1 > 5 years). Only one (juvenile) animal, which was sampled directly after succumbing to EEHV-HD, was found to be seronegative for EEHV. The two other EEHV-HD cases tested showed low antibody levels, suggesting that all three cases died upon a primary EEHV infection. In conclusion, our study suggests that essentially all (semi-)captive (sub)adult elephants in European zoos and in Laos carry EEHV, and that young elephants with low antibody levels are at risk of dying from EEHV-HD.

Identification of African Elephant Polyomavirus in wild elephants and the creation of a vector expressing its viral tumor antigens to transform elephant primary cells.

Wild elephant populations are declining rapidly due to rampant killing for ivory and body parts, range fragmentation, and human-elephant conflict. Wild and captive elephants are further impacted by viruses, including highly pathogenic elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses. Moreover, while the rich genetic diversity of the ancient elephant lineage is disappearing, elephants, with their low incidence of cancer, have emerged as a surprising resource in human cancer research for understanding the intrinsic cellular response to DNA damage. However, studies on cellular resistance to transformation and herpesvirus reproduction have been severely limited, in part due to the lack of established elephant cell lines to enable in vitro experiments. This report describes creation of a recombinant plasmid, pAelPyV-1-Tag, derived from a wild isolate of African Elephant Polyomavirus (AelPyV-1), that can be used to create immortalized lines of elephant cells. This isolate was extracted from a trunk nodule biopsy isolated from a wild African elephant, Loxodonta africana, in Botswana. The AelPyV-1 genome contains open-reading frames encoding the canonical large (LTag) and small (STag) tumor antigens. We cloned the entire early region spanning the LTag and overlapping STag genes from this isolate into a high-copy vector to construct a recombinant plasmid, pAelPyV-1-Tag, which effectively transformed primary elephant endothelial cells. We expect that the potential of this reagent to transform elephant primary cells will, at a minimum, facilitate study of elephant-specific herpesviruses.

The occurrence of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus infection in wild and captive Asian elephants in Thailand: Investigation based on viral DNA and host antibody.

Background and Aim:Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) is a serious disease, threatening the life of young elephants. Many elephants have been infected with no clinical signs and may serve as carriers spreading this disease. It is important to monitor the disease through clinical signs and molecular diagnosis. In this study we investigated the occurrence of EEHV and the efficiency of different techniques used to monitor EEHV infection in various samples and populations of Asian elephants.Materials and Methods:Blood and trunk swabs were collected from live elephants, while visceral organs (lung, digestive tract, spleen, lymph nodes, and kidney) were collected from dead elephants. EEHV was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in whole blood, trunk swabs, and visceral organs as samples, while elephant anti-EEHV immunoglobulin G (IgG) in serum was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A total of 162 samples were analyzed in this study: 129 from healthy, 26 from dead, and 7 from sick elephants.Results:The present study showed that the overall incidence of EEHV was 40.1% (n=65/162). Approximately 46.2% (n=12/26) and 85.7% (n=6/7) of dead and sick elephants were positive for EEHV by PCR, respectively. All sick elephants that were young and affected by EEHV clinical disease tested negative for the IgG antibody ELISA, suggesting primary EEHV infection in this group. In addition, 2.3% (n=3/129) of subclinical infections were detected using PCR, and trunk swab samples showed slightly higher sensitivity (5.3%, n=2/38) to detect EEHV than whole blood (1.2%, n=1/84). As many as, 48.4% (n=44/91) of healthy elephants were EEHV seropositive (ELISA-positive), suggesting that many elephants in Thailand had previously been infected. Overall, 30% of dead wild elephants had been infected with EEHV (n=3/10). Moreover, statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in the EEHV detection rate between different age groups or sexes (p>0.05).Conclusion:PCR is better than ELISA to detect EEHV active infection in dead/sick elephants and to monitor EEHV in young elephants. ELISA is suitable for detecting previous EEHV infection and carriers, particularly adults. Theoretically, we could use both PCR and ELISA to increase the sensitivity of testing, along with observing abnormal behavior to efficiently monitor this disease. Identification of EEHV carriers within elephant populations is important to prevent transmission to healthy individuals, especially young elephants with high mortality from EEHV. This is the first report from Thailand regarding EEHV infection in wild elephants, showing the importance of preventing disease transmission between captive and wild elephants.

A computational modelling approach to human-elephant interactions in the Bunda District, Tanzania

Agent-based and GIS-based models of human-elephant interactions were developed and integrated to evaluate and recommend the best management mitigation strategies to either reduce or eradicate the adverse impacts of human-elephant interactions in the Bunda District, Tanzania. The model estimated the appropriate minimum elephant and human populations, and geographical distances from the edges of protected areas, rivers and conservation corridors. The model results from each modelling scenario were analysed for comparative performance, where minimal recorded incidents of crop damage, human deaths, elephant deaths, and hidden impacts were the primary focus. Selection of the best performing scenario based on the magnitude of the reduction and eradication of adverse impact(s). However, for each selection of the best scenario(s), there were costs that a model user must incur, as there was no cost-free scenario. Reduction of any of the adverse impacts may run counter to fiscal, conservation, land and socioeconomic policies. Therefore, the model user may select the best scenario within the constraints of these policies. It is recommended that the adoption of the best scenario should not rely solely on the type of adverse impacts but also tolerance and resilience level of elephants and the well-being of the affected people. Therefore, the capabilities of people, elephants, and conservationists to accept, tolerate and, ultimately, to recover from a certain level o

Measuring progress towards SDG16 in Afghanistan: Ignoring the elephant in the room

Measuring progress towards SDG16 in Afghanistan: Ignoring the elephant in the room

Beef Production on Rotationally Grazed F1 Pennisetum Hybrid and Elephant Grass (Pennisetum Purpureum Schum.) Pastures

Comparative studies of elephant grass and the F1 hybrids between the 'maiwa' cultivar of millet ( Pennisetum americanum ) and elephant grass ( P. purpureum ) indicated a superiority in quality of the hybrids. To ascertain this potential superiority animal performance was measured by estimating beef production on F1 Pennisetum hybrid and elephant grass pastures consisting of random mixtures of genotypes which were grazed from July 28 to December 6, 1972 (132 days) by 18 to 24 months old White Fulani (Bunaji) Zebu heifers. Each pasture was divided into six 0.07-ha paddocks which were grazed in intervening rest periods of 30 to 35 days. Total liveweight gains per hectare, of animals grazing F1 Pennisetum hybrid and elephant grass pastures were 246.71 and 171.77 kg respetively. Mean daily liveweight gain per 100 kg body weight of animals on the F1 Pennisetum hybrid pasture was 0.18 kg of animals grazing elephant grass. Dry matter (DM) utilisation and average daily intake of the F1 hybrids and elephant grass were respectively, 46 and 35% and 2.2 and 2.0% of body weight while 11.71 kg and 15.85 kg of F1 Pennisetum hybrids and elephant grass, respectively, were consumed per kg of liveweight gain. The superior performance of animals grazing F1 Pennisetum hybrids was attributed to the higher intake and more efficient conversion of the hybrids. Stand mortality of F1 Pennisetum hybrids and elephant grass at the end of the study were 25 and 15%, respectively. greater animal output can be expected from F1 Pennisetum hybrids selected for improved DM production quality and plant persistence.

Adiposity, reproductive and metabolic health, and activity levels in zoo Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).

Many captive Asian elephant populations are not self-sustaining, possibly due in part to obesity-related health and reproductive issues. This study investigated relationships between estimated body composition and metabolic function, inflammatory markers, ovarian activity (females only) and physical activity levels in 44 Asian elephants (n=35 females, n=9 males). Deuterium dilution was used to measure total body water from which fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) could be derived to estimate body composition. Serum was analyzed for progestagens and estradiol (females only), deuterium, glucose, insulin and amyloid A. Physical activity was assessed by an accelerometer placed on the elephant's front leg for at least 2 days. Relative fat mass (RFM) - the amount of fat relative to body mass - was calculated to take differences in body size between elephants into consideration. Body fat percentage ranged from 2.01% to 24.59%. Male elephants were heavier (P=0.043), with more FFM (P=0.049), but not FM (P>0.999), than females. For all elephants, estimated RFM (r=0.45, P=0.004) was positively correlated with insulin. Distance walked was negatively correlated with age (r=-0.46, P=0.007). When adjusted for FFM and age (P<0.001), non-cycling females had less fat compared with cycling females, such that for every 100 kg increase in FM, the odds of cycling were 3 times higher (P<0.001). More work is needed to determine what an unhealthy amount of fat is for elephants; however, our results suggest higher adiposity may contribute to metabolic perturbations.

Modelling continental range shift of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) under a changing climate and land cover: implications for future conservation of the species

Climate and land use change are anticipated to alter the distribution of wildlife, due to their impact on the quantity and quality of forage availability, water cycle, as well as competition for key resources. Using an ensemble of species distribution models (SDMs), we sought to predict changes in the distribution of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in response to climatic and land cover change in Africa. We found that African elephant distribution is driven predominantly by changes in temperature followed by changes in precipitation and land cover. Our results show that 17.1% of the continent shows high suitability for L. africana under the current climatic conditions, while 56.6% is unsuitable under similar climatic conditions. The modelled current suitability shows that high and moderately suitable areas for L. africana are predicted to occur in the eastern, southern and part of western Africa. In 2050, unsuitable area for elephants under Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 and RCP 8.5 is projected to increase by 12.7% and 14.1%, respectively. In contrast, the highly suitable area for L. africana is projected to decrease by 51.3% and 67.6% under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, respectively. Compared to the current climatic conditions, in 2070 highly suitable areas for L. africana are projected to decrease by 74.5% and 85.9% under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios, respectively. Climate change and land cover change are expected to worsen and become one of the major drivers for the loss of several wildlife species like the African elephant due to their impact on availability of water and forage. Therefore, conservation and management of elephant populations under global change calls for carefully designed migratory corridors and conservation of trans-frontier landscapes to enable dispersal of the elephants and other associated species to more conducive environments.

A postmodernist rendition of the clash between materialism and spiritualism in Haruki Murakami's ‘The Elephant Vanishes’

A postmodernist rendition of the clash between materialism and spiritualism in Haruki Murakami's ‘The Elephant Vanishes’

Scars of human–elephant conflict: patterns inferred from field observations of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka

Abstract Context Human–elephant conflict (HEC) is a major threat to Asian elephants as humans and elephants are forced to share common resources. In Sri Lanka, human-dominated landscapes adjacent to protected areas promote high rates of HEC, especially in the form of crop-foraging by elephants. Crop-foraging can be dangerous to both elephants and humans involved in the conflict. Gunfire is a common way for human communities to deter crop-foraging elephants, and gunshot wounds are commonly described in this elephant population on necropsy. Aims We sought to quantify and describe unique scar patterns among Asian elephants in a protected area, Wasgamuwa National Park, attributed to HEC. Methods We identified 38 adult female and 64 adult male elephants and recorded the age class and body condition of each with established standards. Using photographs, we counted the number, position, and relative size of all scars on each animal. Key results Male elephants had significantly more scars than did females, and for males, the number of scars increased progressively with age. Additionally, male elephants with higher body conditions had more scars. Finally, males tended to have more scars towards the head, especially at older ages. Conclusions Differences in total scar counts between the sexes in this population imply that male elephants in this area more frequently engage in HEC than do females, following observations previously described in the literature. Furthermore, the fact that male elephants acquired progressively more scars as they aged, and that fatter elephants had more scars, indicates that previous exposure to HEC may not have been a deterrent for future events among these males, and potentially, crops served as valuable food sources for these animals. Finally, the changing body locations of these scars with age in males possibly shows plastic behavioural responses during crop-foraging or lower tolerance by farmers towards habitual crop foragers. Implications These results emphasise the need for animal-based approaches to HEC mitigation. Similarly, conservation managers in Sri Lanka and other elephant range countries should investigate similar methods that estimate patterns of HEC to develop effective management strategies directly targeting animals most likely to engage in conflict.

Malignant Snare Traps Threaten an Irreplaceable Megafauna Community

Tropical forests are under severe threat from over-hunting. Subsistence harvests and poaching have decimated wildlife populations to the extent that nearly 50% of Earth’s tropical forests are partially or fully devoid of large mammals. Declines are particularly acute in Southeast Asia where ongoing defaunation, largely attributable to indiscriminate snare trapping, is widespread. Using the extensively forested Aceh province in northern Sumatra as a case study, we document rampant snaring, which threatens Earth’s last sympatric population of tigers, rhinoceros, elephants, and orangutans. To prevent catastrophic hunting-induced impacts already experienced in mainland Southeast Asia, we call for more comprehensive conservation planning assessments that strengthen wildlife law enforcement, promote collaborative anti-poaching, and research species-specific snaring impacts, particularly in the context of human-wildlife conflict. We conclude with a discussion of the important linkages between poaching, wildlife trade, and zoonotic disease risk.

Tuberculosis seroprevalence and comparison of hematology and biochemistry parameters between seropositive and seronegative captive Asian elephants of Nepal.

We conducted a tuberculosis (TB) serosurveillance program of captive elephants in Nepal and compared hematology and biochemistry parameters between seropositive and seronegative elephants. A total of 153 elephants (male=20, female=133) from four national parks were tested for TB using the ElephantTB STAT-PAK® Assay (ChemBio Diagnostic Systems, Inc., Medford, NY, USA). The mean reported age for 138 elephants was 38.5 years (range 2–71 years). Seroprevalence for TB was 21.56% (33/153). The majority of seropositive elephants were female (n=30) and from Chitwan National Park (n=29). The occurrence of TB seropositive cases in other more remote national parks suggests TB may be widespread among the captive elephant population of Nepal. Hematology and biochemistry analyses were performed on 13 and 22 seropositive elephants, respectively and, nine elephants from a seronegative TB herd for comparison. Hematology parameters (hemoglobin, packed cell volume, platelet, white blood cells, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate) were comparable between the two groups. Total protein, globulin, and lactate dehydrogenase were significantly higher in seronegative elephants, and bilirubin was significantly higher in seropositive elephants whereas blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase/aspartate aminotransferase (GOT/AST), glutamic pyruvic transaminase/alanine aminotransferase (GPT/ALT), gamma glutamyl transferase (GT), and albumin were not significantly different. The range of biochemical parameters that were significantly different between seropositive and seronegative elephants had narrow ranges. Thus, the potential of these parameters as a direct biomarker for TB diagnosis is limited based on the findings in this study. We recommend including blood parameters in future TB surveillance studies.

КОРОЛЕВСТВО БЕЛОГО СЛОНА: ИСТОРИЧЕСКОЕ, КУЛЬТУРНОЕ И РЕЛИГИОЗНОЕ ЗНАЧЕНИЕ СЛОНА В ТАЙСКОМ ОБЩЕСТВЕ

In this paper the author considers the cultural and historical phenomenon of the elephant in the life of the Thais as a manifestation of coexistence of nature and man. The role of the State policy in preserving the Indian elephant population in Thailand and in educating the people to respect the elephant and its cults is emphasized. The researcher focuses on the Hindu origin of the mystical cult of the elephant. The phenomenon of worship of the deity Eravana, Ganesha, and the white elephant is considered.