Elephant Interactions Research Articles

Lack of crucial information exacerbates barriers to mitigating human–elephant conflicts in rural Kenya

Abstract Crop foraging by African savannah elephants Loxodonta africana negatively affects farmer livelihoods and support for conservation, yet affordable, sustainable and practical solutions remain elusive. To inform conservation priorities, our goal was to assess the hitherto little explored relationships between farmers’ views on agricultural damage and the socio-economic factors limiting their use of elephant deterrents. We tested our hypotheses associated with the demographic categories of age, education level, years spent farming, gender, exposure to information on deterrent methods, farm size, village and relevant combinations of these factors by surveying 206 respondents across six villages in rural Kenya and analysing the resulting data using an information theoretic approach. Respondents were almost four times more likely to use deterrents if exposed to the relevant information, and almost five times more likely to do so if they had secondary education as opposed to none. Farmers with a higher level of education were five times more likely to have received information on deterrents compared to those with no formal education. Participants who had not received information on deterrents were almost three times more likely to believe that they could implement deterrent methods. Respondents who stated that they could not implement deterrents overwhelmingly cited a lack of financial resources as the reason. Overall, we found that crucial information on reducing elephant crop foraging is not reaching the relevant stakeholders, and socio-economic factors such as education and exposure to information appear to limit uptake of protective measures. These insights are important for developing mitigation strategies and supporting the livelihoods of people affected by negative human–elephant interactions, and thus for effective elephant conservation. Our findings also have broader applications for practitioners seeking to understand barriers stakeholders face in their efforts to mitigate negative interactions with wildlife.

Chilli Cakes: A Nature-Based Solution for Enhancing Human-Wildlife Coexistence and Socio-Economic Resilience in Zimbabwe

Abstract Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) in Zimbabwe is home to a thriving population of African elephants ( Loxodonta africana ). However, this population faces constant threats stemming from human encroachment and habitat degradation, exacerbated by unplanned cultivation and a growing number of domestic livestock. As human and elephant interactions increase, so does the incidence of human-elephant conflict (HEC), posing a significant risk to both communities and elephants alike. This conflict jeopardizes the survival of elephants that venture beyond the confines of the protected area. In defence, the farmers employ various strategies to minimize HECs, including burning chilli peppers, beating drums and fire, deploying bee hives, employing dogs, and utilizing other defensive measures. A study conducted in 2019 identified HEC hot spots through GPS-tracking elephants. A collaboration with affected farmers was then sought in developing a more sustainable solution for mitigating HEC. As a result, a novel product named “Chilli Cake” was developed, drawing upon traditional knowledge and innovative science techniques to deter elephants from raiding crops. The chilli cake initiative successfully reduced HECs and improved crop protection for farmers in Malipati. These findings carry significant implications for elephant conservation through the promotion of coexistence between wildlife and people while promoting community resilience which is the basis for sustainable development in Zimbabwe and beyond. Information © The Authors 2024

Elephant conservation in India: Striking a balance between coexistence and conflicts

AbstractIn the human‐dominated epoch of the Anthropocene, nations worldwide are trying to adopt a variety of strategies for biodiversity conservation, including flagship‐based approaches. The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) plays a pivotal role as a flagship species in India's biodiversity conservation efforts, particularly within its tropical forest ecosystems. As the country harboring the largest Asian elephant population among the 13 range countries, India's conservation strategies offer valuable insights for other range countries. This study elucidates India's elephant conservation paradigm by outlining a historical account of elephant conservation in the country and examining the current administrative and legal frameworks. These are instrumental in implementing strategies aimed at maintaining sustainable elephant populations. Our study also analyzes trends in elephant populations and negative human–elephant interactions, drawing upon data from a centralized government database. Our findings indicate that the elephant population in India is reasonably stable, estimated at between 25,000 and 30,000 individuals. This figure constitutes nearly two‐thirds of the global Asian elephant population. India's elephant population occupies ~163,000 km2 of diverse habitats, comprising 5% of the country's land area, with their distribution spread across the northern, northeastern, east‐central, and southern regions. This distribution has shown fluxes, particularly in the east‐central region, where large‐scale elephant dispersals have been observed. Between 2009 and 2020, human–elephant conflicts in India have resulted in an average annual loss of 450 (±63.7) human lives. During the same period, the central and state governments paid an average of US$ 4.79 million (±1.97) annually as ex gratia for property losses. Recognizing the critical nature of these conflicts, India has implemented various measures to manage this pressing conservation challenge. Overall, sustaining the world's largest extant population of wild elephants in the midst of India's human‐dominated landscapes is enabled by a robust institutional policy and legal framework dedicated to conservation. This commitment is further reinforced by strong political will and a deep‐rooted cultural affinity towards elephants and nature, which fosters a higher degree of tolerance and support for conservation efforts.

Unveiling the aesthetics of sacred elephant interactions: a ChatGPT-driven analysis of Tripadvisor reviews

This study employs ChatGPT, a powerful language model, to delve into the relatively unexplored domain of sacred elephant interactions in Asia. It aims to uncover the emotional and spiritual dimensions of these encounters, identify factors influencing visitor satisfaction, and highlight areas for enhancement. It analyses 1349 Tripadvisor reviews using ChatGPT. Deriving insights from this vast dataset, the research qualitatively categorizes the key dimensions. It underscores the significance of aesthetic elements in shaping tourists’ perceptions and experiences during sacred elephant interactions, adding depth to the field of aesthetics in tourism. This research pioneers the application of ChatGPT in exploring sacred elephant interactions, demonstrating the capacity of artificial intelligence (AI) to derive meaningful insights from online reviews, contributing to an emerging field of study.

Linking crop availability, forest elephant visitation and perceptions of human–elephant interactions in villages bordering Ivindo National Park, Gabon

AbstractFeeding by Critically Endangered forest elephants Loxodonta cyclotis in rural plantations is a conservation issue in Gabon, but studies characterizing drivers of spatiotemporal patterns of human–elephant interactions remain sparse, hindering mitigation. In this study, we use GPS tracking data from two elephants to characterize temporal patterns of village visitation, and surveys of 101 local farmers across seven villages to determine local patterns of crop planting and harvesting and of human–elephant interactions. Local farmers' perceptions of elephant visitations and empirical data on such visits were positively correlated with local crop availability. However, considering the two elephants separately revealed that the correlations were driven by just one individual, with the second elephant showing weak links between crop availability and visitation, highlighting the challenges in reliably predicting human–wildlife interactions. The most popular local perceptions of the drivers of elephant visitation were the presence of crops (53% of responses) and logging (39%). The most popular proposed interventions were letting the government find a solution (32%), killing problem elephants (30%) and providing compensation for lost crops (22%). We discuss the potential feasibility and efficacy of the proposed solutions in the context of human–elephant interactions. Future research efforts should focus on collaring elephants in zones with high potential for negative human–elephant interaction and expanding perception surveys to villages with contrasting ecological contexts (e.g. with and without logging in their surrounding forests), as these could influence local perceptions of conflicts and conservation initiatives.

Local's attitude towards African elephant conservation in and around Chebra Churchura National Park, Ethiopia.

Economic growth and development in developing countries often involves land-use changes which fragment natural areas, bring humans and wildlife into closer proximity and escalating human- wildlife conflicts. Human-wildlife conflicts impose huge costs on local people and their livelihoods. Balancing developmental activities with the conservation of mega fauna such as the African and Asian elephants (Loxodonta Africana, Elephas maximus; respectively) remains problematic. Understanding the reasoning upon which perceived risks and level of human- elephant conflict laid is critical to address societal or cultural beliefs in order to develop effective mitigation strategies. The perceived risks and level of conflict have to be properly addressed for effective planning and implementation of appropriate mitigation strategies. We studied human- elephant interactions in Chebra Churchura National Park Ethiopia (CCNP) from September 8 to October 28, 2022 and collected baseline data on human perceptions of conflicts in an area where elephant populations are increasing. To complete our study, we surveyed 800 household from 20 villages adjacent to the CCNP. The purpose of this investigation was to identify the relevance of the existing human-elephant conflict (HEC) with the attitude of local communities towards elephant conservation, the park management and perceived effective mitigation techniques. The local communities trust in the implementation of different traditional mitigation techniques is generally weak. The households interviewed were less positive towards the effectiveness of most of the traditional techniques in chasing elephants away from their farm lands. They believed that elephants had already adapted and do not respond to most of these techniques. Against the above perception in exception of their usual absence and late arrival, perception of local communities about shooting warning gun by park scouts is among the most accepted effective methods in chasing elephants from their farm lands. The majority of respondents believe that separation of elephants and humans by constricting barriers is the best solution to the problem. The idea of constructing barriers such as electric fence; ditch or concrete wall and blocking corridors between the Park boundary and the villages have become the most popular idea of local communities followed by relocating people to other safer places, as the best protection method against the elephant attack irrespective of the associated initial and maintenance costs.

Infrared barriers as a detection tool to reduce human–elephant conflicts

Elephant incursions into farms represent an important challenge for local communities and farmers living around protected areas, but also for the long‐term conservation of elephants. Early detection of elephants is a promising technique to reduce elephant presence in farms and human settlements reducing human–elephant interactions. In this study we investigated the potential of infrared barriers to detect African savannah elephants Loxodonta africana. We designed and tested battery‐operated photoelectric beam sensors in 12 locations of southern Tanzania and assessed the elephant detection accuracy through camera trapping for a total of 246 days. We obtained 1803 recordings of wildlife crossing the barriers range (30 different species of mammals and several bird and bat species). Our results show that infrared barriers, when located at 1.75–2.2 m high, detect 100% of adult elephants and ∼ 29% of subadult elephants. Giraffes were the only other wildlife species detected by the barriers. Interestingly, large vehicles were also detected, which might be helpful to prevent motorized poaching. Given the gregarious behaviour of elephant families, and the limited access for vehicles, infrared barriers may represent an interesting and cost‐effective detection system for early warning strategies in elephant‐dominated areas of Africa and Asia or for other large‐sized visitors.

The behaviour and fate of translocated bull African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) into a novel environment

AbstractTranslocation of elephants is used to mitigate human‐elephant conflict in Asia and Africa. However, few studies investigate how translocations affect the movements and social behaviour of individuals following their release, which may have important implications for whether translocated animals survive and succeed. Using GPS‐tracking data, we explored movements of five translocated bull elephants (Loxodonta africana) moved to Tsavo, Kenya, and compared them with five resident bull elephants. Position data was collected hourly for 1 year (March 2018–March 2019), and analysed to investigate home range, displacement rates, problematic behaviour and group size. Of the five translocated elephants, three were illegally killed and one continued to break fences and raid crops. Only one elephant stayed away from human settlement. We found group size and composition to be significantly different, with translocated elephants observed in smaller groups with no female elephant interactions. All elephants showed variation in home ranges and displacement rates, but differences were not significant between resident and translocated elephant groups. For future translocations, we recommend careful consideration of elephant social systems, elephant age, timing, release site and proximity to human settlements that might create human‐elephant conflict. This will improve chance for success of such high‐stake and expensive translocations.

Human–elephant interaction: Community perspectives on conflict mitigation and conservation mechanisms

The instances of human–elephant conflict (HEC) are becoming pervasive in elephant range areas across the globe. One of the primary reasons is the exclusion and under‐representation of local communities in the planning and implementation of mitigation strategies. However, engaging with local communities and considering their viewpoints are vital for the success of conflict mitigation and conservation efforts. This qualitative study was undertaken to gain a reasonably comprehensive understanding of the local community's perspectives concerning elephants in the Balasore district of Odisha, a state along the Eastern coast of India. Qualitative data obtained primarily through focus group discussions were analyzed using MAXQDA 2020 to perform thematic analysis of participants' narratives. Six common themes emerged from the study: exposure and experiences with elephants, the efficacy of deterrents, compassionate payment provisions, reasons for tolerance, and expectations. Attempts were made to understand the community viewpoints and offer implementable recommendations to improve human–elephant interactions by adopting more inclusive and participatory conservation practices.

Asian elephant movements between natural and human-dominated landscapes mirror patterns of crop damage in Sri Lanka

AbstractWildlife movements within a landscape are influenced by environmental factors such as food availability and, as human-modified landscapes continue to expand, the risks associated with encountering people. For Asian elephants Elephas maximus, human-dominated landscapes can be a risky but also rewarding habitat. When elephants share space with people, negative human–elephant interactions are common, sometimes resulting in injuries or deaths of both people and elephants. We monitored elephant movements in and out of a forest reserve in central Sri Lanka to test four predictions regarding elephant behaviour: (1) visits to agricultural areas occur at times of the year when crops are plentiful, (2) elephants exploit these areas by night to avoid interactions with people, (3) increased nocturnal illumination reduces use of agricultural areas, and (4) males make greater use of anthropogenic food sources than family groups. Analysis of camera-trap data confirmed that elephants visited human-dominated areas mostly at night. The frequency of such incursions was not influenced by moon phase for males, but there was a weak effect of moon phase for family groups. Males moved more frequently into human-dominated landscapes than family groups, and their movements showed a distinct seasonal pattern, peaking at times of rice and fruit harvest. Our findings suggest that elephants primarily venture into human-dominated areas to consume crops. Encouraging farmers in areas frequented by elephants to adapt land-use practices (e.g. guarding crops, fencing villages, planting orange/citrus fences) and establish early warning systems could help limit the damage caused by elephants.

Under pressure: How human‐wild‐captive elephant social‐ecological system in Laos is teetering due to global forces and sociocultural changes

Abstract Few empirical studies have described social‐ecological systems (SESs) in transition. Some studies focused on external drivers that impact the SES and communities' responses to adapt to changes, including economic, land and conservation policies. Others have considered the effect of social and cultural changes on communities' capacity to sustain their activities. While sociocultural changes are increasingly common through globalization and world‐wide economic development, there is an urgent need to better understand and document how these changes affect individual and community agency to adapt or transform a system that is facing a combination of powerful internal and external forces. The human–Asian elephant relationship appears particularly illustrative of a complex SES because of the dual status of the elephant being wild or under human care, and the entanglement of ecological, cultural, social and economic dimensions. The ongoing and rapid political, socio‐economic and environmental changes occurring in Laos for the last decades have strongly affected this relationship. We conducted an ethnological survey to assess how the SES has evolved in Laos and its consequences for human‐wild‐captive elephant interactions and elephant handling practices. We show that in the 1990s, the SES was based on the principles of common access to natural resources and social control over nature and spirits, and led to a form of elephant handling with close interactions between captive and wild elephants. Husbandry practices then could be likened to pastoralism as a mode of production associated with a mode of relation close to seasonal freedom. Since the turn of the present century, the commodification of nature and of increasingly divided access to natural resources led eventually to the segregation of wild elephants and captivity of their working conspecifics. With the intensification of workload, owners switched to a ranching‐like economy, based on the accumulation of monetary capital from the employment of elephants in logging or tourism. We discuss how the combination of external drivers, such as economic liberalization, land and conservation policies, and internal drivers linked to sociocultural changes could affect a SES in transition, leading to a fading interest of the new generation in their family heritage. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Threats Identification and Human–African Elephant Interactions in Kafta-Shiraro National Park, Tigray, Ethiopia

The main objective of the study was to identify the major threats of African elephant in Kafta-Shiraro National Park, Tigray, Ethiopia. The data was collected using questionnaires, interview, discussion with key informants and direct field observation. Currently Kafta-Shiraro National Park was affected by many threats such as Agricultural encroachments (1 st ), Traditional mining extraction (2 nd ), Deforestation (3 rd ), Charcoal production (4 th ), Irrigation activity (5 th ), Fire (6 th ) and Illegal hunting and poaching (7 th ) ranking based on the field observation and questionnaire from respondents. Among the main sources of conflict between human–African elephant in the national park were crop damage (57%), competition for resources (19%), necessity of guarding field (12%), destruction of property (8%) and people killed by elephant (4%). Habitat disturbance, livestock interference, feed shortage and illegal hunting were the main threats of African elephant in the park. Poor community awareness, high population, frees access for resources, weak law enforcement and poor patrolling were the major problems for effective management of elephants in the park. After analyzed the data African elephant conservation training were given for 40 community representatives for 6 consecutive days. Finally the office of the national park should work in collaboration with the local community in order to solve the current threats of the park to sustainable resources for the next generation. Keywords: African Elephant, Conservation, Human- elephant conflict, Threats DOI: 10.7176/JNSR/12-9-05 Publication date: May 31 st 2021

Producing elephant commodities for 'conservation hunting' in Namibian communal-area conservancies

Namibia's internationally acclaimed CBNRM program depends to a large extent on revenues generated from the trophy hunting of wild animals. The model is an important example of an increasingly 'neoliberal' global policy framework as applied to biodiversity conservation, its market-based approach and attendant socio-ecological effects having received in-depth engagement and critique from a political ecology perspective.Yet there remains a lack of detailed research concerning how these programs and their value frames are operationalized in practice. The article attempts to advance this literature through an empirical exploration of practices undertaken by diverse actors that work to produce and extract value from 'wild' natures, specifically elephants for 'conservation hunting' in Namibian communal-area conservancies. Conceptually, the article also contributes to an emerging body of work seeking to 'ecologise' political ecology, exploring the co-optation of lively elephants and other beyond-human entities in the production of economic value. 'Following' the elephant's interactions with other living entities, the article reveals the (non)human work and social practices that together 'labor' to produce commodified elephants that can be killed as trophies. We argue that 'undesirable encounters' such as crop raiding by elephants are both indicative of unequal power relations amongst CBNRM stakeholders and central to (re)producing dominant (neoliberal) value frames. The animal's spontaneous activities are co-opted into technocratic governance practices that legitimize the killing of elephants on environmental and economic grounds. In opening up the contested,contingent, and more-than-human nature of these social-ecological relations we also hope to contribute to possibilities for imagining more equitable and ecologically resilient conservation futures.

Perceptions and realities of elephant crop raiding and mitigation methods

AbstractCrop raiding by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) jeopardizes human livelihoods and undermines conservation efforts. Addressing this issue is particularly important in subsistence farms adjacent to protected areas and requires assessing the perceived and actual scale of the problem and the benefits, limitations and adoption potential of mitigation techniques. To achieve these objectives, we assessed the effectiveness of chili and beehive fences relative to control plots, using a daily farm monitoring protocol implemented on 20 farms bordering the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (Tanzania). Prior to the field study, we interviewed 65 farmers about human–elephant interactions and contrasted interview findings with those of daily farm monitoring. Farmer perception of crop raiding frequency declined with increasing distance from the protected area and was, on average, eight times greater than daily farm monitoring data indicated. The majority of interviewees expressed a willingness to try chili or beehive fences, though chili fences were preferred. Generalized‐linear‐mixed models indicated that neither elephant farm intrusions nor damages were significantly reduced by either chili or beehive fences relative to the control sites. Losses per month and hectare did not differ significantly by fence type. However, farm plots with chili fences did not experience massive damages which occasionally occurred in beehive or control plots. This partial effectiveness of chili fences was further confirmed by contrasting crop losses from a subset of farms that were subject to a cross‐over experimental design. Our multidimensional case study suggests that chili fences have greater adoption potential than beehive fences. Nevertheless, additional efforts are required to increase effectiveness and to realize adoption potential. By providing insights into the context and circumstances that presented challenges to the effectiveness, sustainability and scalability of beehive and chili fences, this study can serve as reference for areas where crop raiding by elephants is a key conservation conflict.

Differing physiological and behavioral responses to anthropogenic factors between resident and non-resident African elephants at Mpala Ranch, Laikipia County, Kenya.

BackgroundHeterogeneous landscapes like those of Laikipia County, Kenya consist of a mosaic of land-use types, which may exert differential physiological effects on elephants that occupy and traverse them. Understanding behavioral and physiological states of wild African elephants in response to the challenges of living in human-dominated landscapes is therefore important for conservation managers to evaluate risks imposed by elephants to humans and vice versa. Several conservation physiology tools have been developed to assess how animals respond to both natural and anthropogenic changes, and determine biological impacts. This study investigated how migratory and avoidance behavioral to vehicle presence, and vegetation quality affected fecal glucocorticoid (GC) metabolite (FGM) concentrations in African elephants at Mpala Ranch, Laikipia County, Kenya.MethodsThe study compared adrenal glucocorticoid activity of resident elephants that live within Mpala (n = 57) and non-resident elephants whose space use patterns overlap several ranches (n = 99) in Laikipia County, Kenya. Fecal samples were collected for a 4-month period between April and August for analysis of FGM concentrations. Behavioral reactions to research vehicles and body condition also were assessed. Satellite images from Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging (MODIS MOD13Q1) were downloaded and processed using Google Earth Engine to calculate a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) as a measure of vegetation quality.ResultsAs expected, there was a positive correlation between avoidance behavior to vehicle presence and FGM concentrations in both resident and non-resident elephants, whereas there was an inverse relationship between FGM concentrations and NDVI values. Our study also found a positive influence of age on the FGM concentrations, but there were no relationships between FGM and sex, social group type, herd size, and body condition. However, contrary to our expectations, resident elephants had higher FGM concentrations than non-residents.DiscussionFindings reveal elephants with stronger avoidance responses to research vehicles and resident elephants with relatively smaller home ranges exhibited higher FGM concentrations within the Mpala Ranch, Kenya and surrounding areas. Higher vegetative quality within the ranges occupied by non-resident elephants in Laikipia may be one reason for lower FGM, and an indication that the non-residents are tracking better forage quality to improve energy balance and reduce overall GC output. Additionally, our study found a positive influence of age, but no other demographic variables on FGM concentrations. Finally, adrenal glucocorticoid activity was inversely related to vegetative quality. Our findings can help conservation managers better understand how behavior and environment influences the physiological states of African elephants, and how management intervention might mitigate negative human–elephant interactions.

Innovative way of human-elephant competition mitigation

Abstract: The negative interaction between humans and elephants is often referred to as conflict, however it is also seen as competition. Human-elephant competition (HEC) is a major protection threat in the fringe villages of the Jaldapara National Park (JPNP) of West Bengal, India. JPNP is facing challenges from the highly populated fringe villages, which exist in elephant corridors. Between 2015 and 2018 there were 12 elephant deaths. During the same period elephants caused 34 human deaths. As per data, most of the elephant interactions occurred in the fringe villages of Madarihat and Jaldapara North Range. Per reports of human deaths, Chekamari and Khairbari villages of Madarihat Range are in the most vulnerable list. Most of the human deaths occurred in the early morning (05.00–06.00 h) and in the evening, when people are going outside for open defecation (OD). On a pilot basis Chekamari and Khairbari villages of Madarihat Range were selected for a door to door household survey with the objective to develop an innovative strategy as a mitigation measure of HEC. The results of the survey show that both villages are tribal and minority population, the socio-economic condition of the people is very poor, on an average 5–6 members are in each household, the source of drinking water is a community well for most of the households, and 50 households are devoid of toilet facilities so automatically the members of those households go outside for OD. Out of the total human deaths, 16 occurred in the Madarihat area; out of these 16 cases, six were from the Chekamari and Khairbari villages. For this reason, between April 2019 to September 2019, with available funds 20 toilets with tube-well were built in the 20 neediest households of these two villages. Due to the communication with the community, behavioural changes were made and their participation for 100% usage of those toilets was assured. After the construction of the toilets until now, no human death cases have been reported.

Panic at the disco: solar-powered strobe light barriers reduce field incursion by African elephantsLoxodonta africanain Chobe District, Botswana

AbstractManaging interactions between humans and wild elephants is a complex problem that is increasing as a result of agricultural and urban expansion into and alongside protected areas. Mitigating negative interactions requires the development of new tools to reduce competition and promote coexistence. Many studies have tested various mitigation techniques across elephant ranges in Africa and Asia, with varying levels of success. Recently, strobe lights have been suggested as a potential mitigation strategy in deterring African lionsPanthera leofrom kraals or bomas, but this technique has to date not been tested to reduce negative human–elephant interactions. Over a 2-year period (November 2016–June 2018), we tested the effectiveness of solar-powered strobe light barriers in deterring African elephantsLoxodonta africana, in collaboration with 18 farmers in a community adjacent to the Chobe Forest Reserve and Chobe National Park in northern Botswana. Although elephants were more likely to pass by fields with solar-powered strobe light barriers (which was probably a result of selection bias as we focused on fields that had previously been damaged by elephants), they were less likely to enter these treatment fields than control fields without such barriers. Our findings demonstrate the efficacy of light barriers to reduce negative human–elephant interactions in rural communities.

Human–elephant interactions in areas surrounding the Rungwa, Kizigo, and Muhesi Game Reserves, central Tanzania

AbstractThis study assesses the patterns of crop damage by elephants Loxodonta africana in areas adjacent to the Rungwa, Kizigo and Muhesi Game Reserves in Tanzania. We used a questionnaire survey to collect data from a total of 210 household heads from seven villages, with 30 household heads in each village, during June–August 2015. Proximity was a significant factor influencing losses, with crop farms within < 1 km from the reserves having higher losses, followed by those 1–5 km and > 5 km distant. Most households (81.0%) < 1 km from a reserve reported crop damage whereas those within 1–5 km (65.9%) and > 5 km (20.0%) reported less damage. Most of the losses (79.8%) occurred in the first half of the year (the wet season). Immigrants reported higher average losses to crops than Indigenous respondents. Noise making, flashlights, setting fire around fields and disturbance by shooting were the methods used to deter elephants from entering crop fields. We recommend that communities around these game reserves avoid areas that are < 1 km from the reserve boundary, plant crops such as chilli, use honeybee Apis mellifera fences to deter elephants from their crops, and receive education on available mitigation methods, to help minimize crop losses to elephants.

Poggetti Vecchi (Tuscany, Italy): A late Middle Pleistocene case of human–elephant interaction

A paleosurface with a concentration of wooden-, bone-, and stone-tools interspersed among an accumulation of fossil bones, largely belonging to the straight-tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus, was found at the bottom of a pool, fed by hot springs, that was excavated at Poggetti Vecchi, near Grosseto (Tuscany, Italy). The site is radiometrically dated to the late Middle Pleistocene, around 171,000 years BP. Notable is the association of the artifacts with the elephant bones, and in particular the presence of digging sticks made from boxwood (Buxus sp.). Although stone tools show evidence of use mainly on animal tissues, indicating some form of interaction between hominins and animals, the precise use of the sticks is unclear. Here we discuss about the role played by the hominins at the site: paleobiological and taphonomic evidence indicates that the elephants died by a natural cause and were butchered soon after their death. The associated paleontological and archeological evidence from this site provides fresh insights into the behavior of early Neanderthals in Central Italy. The discovery of Poggetti Vecchi shows how opportunistically flexible Neanderthals were in response to environmental contingencies.

The Role of Agricultural Land Use Pattern Dynamics on Elephant Habitat Depletion and Human-Elephant Conflict in Sri Lanka

The drastic depletion of elephant habitats in the dry zone of Sri Lanka has led to intense human-elephant conflict (HEC) in a region that is home to one of the celebrated agrarian settlements in Asia. Known as the tank villages, these settlements have a long history of human coexistence with elephants and other wild animals. However, the escalating incidence of human-elephant fatalities and crop losses to farmers indicates that the mode of interaction between the tank village inhabitants and the elephants has transformed from coexistence to conflict. Both population and agricultural land use pattern dynamics have contributed to agricultural expansion and loss of elephant habitat in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. However, our knowledge of how the agricultural land use pattern dynamics has contributed to the drastic depletion of elephant range in the dry zone is limited. This research attempted to gain insight into the role of agricultural land use dynamics on elephant habitat depletion and HEC in Sri Lanka through the study of Kuttikulama, a dry zone tank village. The data were collected through focus group discussions, key informant interviews and a cross sectional survey. The study revealed that agricultural land use patterns in traditional dry zone villages have changed in major ways over the last few decades. Such changes included the transition from a shifting-cultivation mode of farming to a fixed sequential mode of farming, the expansion of the per capita cropping area, and the disappearance of communality in agricultural land use patterns. The changes were found to have significantly contributed to a shift in human–elephant interactions from relatively harmonious ones to contentious ones. The study reveals the potential of traditional and alternative cropping and land use systems to minimize human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka.