Green Infrastructure Elements Research Articles

Combining the Conservation of Biodiversity with the Provision of Ecosystem Services in Urban Green Infrastructure Planning: Critical Features Arising from a Case Study in the Metropolitan Area of Rome

A large number of green infrastructure (GI) projects have recently been proposed, planned and implemented in European cities following the adoption of the GI strategy by the EU Commission in 2013. Although this policy tool is closely related to biodiversity conservation targets, some doubts have arisen as regards the ability of current urban GI to provide beneficial effects not only for human societies but also for the ecological systems that host them. The aim of this work is to review the features that should be considered critical when searching for solutions that simultaneously support biodiversity and guarantee the provision of ecosystem services (ES) in urban areas. Starting from a case study in the metropolitan area of Rome, we highlight the role of urban trees and forests as proxies for overall biodiversity and as main ecosystem service providers. We look beyond the individual functional features of plant species and vegetation communities to promote the biogeographic representativity, ecological coherence and landscape connectivity of new or restored GI elements.

Semi‐natural habitats mitigate the effects of temperature rise on wild bees

Summary The effect of climate change on wild bee communities is of major concern since the decline of bee species could imperil the provision of pollination services. Additionally, habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to wild bee populations, but improvements to the landscape structure could also improve the general conditions for wild bees. However, potential interactive effects of climate change and landscape structure on wild bee communities remain unknown. In this study, we assessed the potential of semi‐natural areas to maintain robust communities under changing weather conditions. We used bee monitoring data from six 4 × 4 km field sites across Germany. Almost 30 000 bee specimens were collected from 2010 to 2012 in 16 local communities per site at six sampling occasions per year. Following a multimodel inference approach, we identified the most important weather and landscape variables as well as interaction terms that affect wild bee species richness and total abundance. Correcting for overall phenology, we found a strong negative relationship between bee species richness and temperature, indicating that future increasing temperatures will lead to a decrease in species richness. However, a high proportion of semi‐natural habitats can considerably decrease the detrimental effect of warmer temperatures on bee species richness and abundance. Synthesis and applications. Semi‐natural areas and green infrastructure elements within agricultural landscapes become even more important under changing temperature conditions to mitigate the negative effects of increasing temperatures on wild bee species richness and total abundance. This has important implications for conservation decision making, suggesting that maintaining or restoring a fair amount of semi‐natural areas could serve as a countermeasure against climate change for wild bees.

Green roofs: Experimental and analytical study of its potential for urban microclimate regulation in Mediterranean–continental climates

Green infrastructure elements such as green roofs, walls and urban forests provide multiple regulating ecosystem services to the urban environment, including storm water management, heat island effect control, esthetic values and improvement of air and water quality. However, specific regulating services on urban microclimate at street level have not been widely quantified. This article analyzes the effects of green roofs and urban forests on urban microclimate, quantifying its potential for regulating ambient temperature in hot season in Mediterranean–continental climates. The results show a moderate effect of green roofs on the surrounding microclimate, but a larger contribution when combining it with vegetation at pedestrian level. This experimental study has identified the potential of the ground moisture content for microclimate regulation leading to alternative solutions for microclimate regulation based on permeable materials used for ground coverage in urban cores in combination with shading elements. The conclusion shows the potential of the green roofs, urban forests and porous-moist materials as a strategy for adapting urban ecosystems to the effects of climate change.

Mainstreaming Green Infrastructure Elements into the Design of Public Road Reserves: Challenges for Road Authorities

Global warming poses particular challenges for urban areas due to the greater intensity of rainfall and issues of stormwater runoff, and the heat island effect generated by the reflection of the sun off hard surfaces, such as buildings and road pavements; for example, in Australian cities (i.e., Sydney), roads account for approximately 25% of all urban land use. The challenge for road authorities is to implement in road planning, design and implementation as the term infrastructure has appeared increasingly throughout the world in land management and planning. Despite these environmental challenges, traditional highway engineering practices use arguments regarding the economic inefficiencies of urban traffic congestion to justify the business case for road-widening schemes and new road construction projects with associated de-forestation and vegetation loss. An international literature review and site visits of best practice in Australia, Singapore, the U.K. and the USA is reported. A typical road authority project is described in Sydney, Australia, where the initial design concept to accommodate growth in all modes of transport was road widening and land acquisition, but the authors persuaded the local and state government authorities to consider other options to green the infrastructure, particularly opportunities to add trees and vegetation near the roadway, which provide the additional bonus of managing surface water runoff. From this general problem, the case for, and value to, road authorities to develop guidelines for project planning and implementation, are presented. The conclusions include ongoing research to formulate draft guidelines for governments based on a holistic approach to the planning and design of high-density urban development around transport nodes that includes principles.

Mapping green infrastructure based on ecosystem services and ecological networks: A Pan-European case study

Abstract Identifying, promoting and preserving a strategically planned green infrastructure (GI) network can provide ecological, economic and social benefits. It has also become a priority for the planning and decision-making process in sectors such as conservation, (land) resource efficiency, agriculture, forestry or urban development. In this paper we propose a methodology that can be used to identify and map GI elements at landscape level based on the notions of ecological connectivity, multi-functionality of ecosystems and maximisation of benefits both for humans and for natural conservation. Our approach implies, first, the quantification and mapping of the natural capacity to deliver ecosystem services and, secondly, the identification of core habitats and wildlife corridors for biota. All this information is integrated and finally classified in a two-level GI network. The methodology is replicable and flexible (it can be tailored to the objectives and priorities of the practitioners); and it can be used at different spatial scales for research, planning or policy implementation. The method is applied in a continental scale analysis covering the EU-27 territory, taking into account the delivery of eight regulating and maintenance ecosystem services and the requirements of large mammals’ populations. The best performing areas for ecosystem services and/or natural habitat provision cover 23% of Europe and are classified as the core GI network. Another 16% of the study area with relatively good ecological performance is classified as the subsidiary GI network. There are large differences in the coverage of the GI network among countries ranging from 73% of the territory in Estonia to 6% in Cyprus. A potential application of these results is the implementation of the EU Biodiversity Strategy, assuming that the core GI network might be crucial to maintain biodiversity and natural capital and, thus, should be conserved; while the subsidiary network could be restored to increase both the ecological and social resilience. This kind of GI analysis could be also included in the negotiations of the European Regional Development Funds or the Rural Development Programmes.

Setting Priorities for Urban Forest Planning. A Comprehensive Response to Ecological and Social Needs for the Metropolitan Area of Rome (Italy)

Urban forests represent key elements of green infrastructure and provide essential ecosystem services in both the ecological and social spheres. Therefore, forestation planning plays a decisive role in the sustainable development strategies of metropolitan areas and addresses the challenge of maintaining biodiversity while improving human health and well-being. The aim of this work is to present a methodological approach that can be used to identify priorities in urban forest planning and can provide comprehensive responses to ecological and social needs in any metropolitan context. The approach, which is based on interdisciplinary principles of landscape ecology, ecosystem geography and dynamic plant sociology, has been adopted in the Municipality of Rome (Italy). The first step entails defining an ecological framework for forestation plans by means of the ecological land classification and assessment of landscape conservation status. The second step entails setting forestation priorities according to both ecological and social criteria. The application of the method proved to effectively select limited areas requiring intervention within an extensive metropolitan area. Furthermore, it provided responses to sustainability issues such as long-term maintenance of restored habitats, landscape perspective of planning, greening of urban agriculture, improvement in urban resilience, and cost-effective improvement in ecosystem services provision.

Brownfields As an Element of Green Infrastructure for Implementing Ecosystem Services into Urban Areas

Vegetation-covered urban brownfields provide a number of ecosystem services to help tackle current urban challenges, such as preventing a loss of biodiversity, adapting to climate change, and fostering recreational and healthy urban environments. However, the potential benefits for urban areas can only be realized if such brownfields are accepted as vital elements of the urban green infrastructure. The paper addresses the potentials of different types of green urban brownfields to provide particular ecosystem services with an outstanding relevance for the urban environment and the life of local residents, and looks at how these services can be best exploited in urban areas. Based on literature reviews, climate modeling, and a survey, research findings are presented on habitat services, microclimatic regulation services, and recreational services for various types of green urban brownfields. Differences in the quantity and quality of these services can be stated according to the specific and varying vegetation inventory and structural parameters of green urban brownfields. Scenario modeling of the preservation and development or transformation of brownfields into green spaces are used to illustrate the potentials and trade-offs of land-use changes in urban environments. Additionally, the provision of ecosystem services is influenced by the different options of green spaces for reusing brownfields. The paper closes with a discussion of some approaches to implementing these findings in urban realities.

Role of Green Infrastructure in Determining House Value in Labuan Using Hedonic Pricing Model

Abstract This study is to look at the trends of the housing price affected by green infrastructure elements by using the Hedonic Price Approach. The researchers embark on these objectives; (a) to analyze the green infrastructure components that affect the housing market price; and (b) to examine the regression analysis on the Hedonic Pricing Model. Labuan Botanical Garden becomes a major green infrastructure component in this study. A survey questionnaire were distributed to 386 respondents lived in the housing area within 1800meter radius from Botanical Garden. Interview and observation were conducted during the study to examine the community preferences towards their housing area.

Analysis of Green Infrastructure in Lodz, Poland

AbstractThe paper focuses on the analysis of biologically active areas of the city in terms applicable to the understanding of green infrastructure in their spatial and urban planning references. The paper is an expanded account of the writers’ research on green infrastructure resources of the city of Lodz, concerning the spatial identification of green infrastructure and its diversity in spatial arrangement, extracting elements of its structure, as well as their functional diversity in relation to urban zones of the city. The research described in this paper also associated with an attempt to characterize elements of green infrastructure in chosen urban zones. The motivation to undertake the research reported in this paper was to look for ways to improve the analyzing and description of the green infrastructure of a city for the purpose of development planning. As a result of this paper, contributions to the analysis of urban green infrastructure were indicated. Reliable identification of morphological s...

Semi-natural vegetation in agricultural land: European map and links to ecosystem service supply

Semi-natural vegetation in agricultural land mainly includes extensively managed grasslands, agro-forestry areas and all vegetated features that are not used for crop production, such as hedgerows, buffer strips, field margins and woodlots. Semi-natural vegetation plays a major role in the supply of ecosystem services such as pollination, pest control, water quality control and erosion prevention. The efficiency of ecosystem services for agriculture should therefore depend upon the spatial distribution of semi-natural vegetation. In spite of such a relevance, semi-natural vegetation in agricultural land has never been mapped at the European scale. Therefore, we report here the first 1- km resolution map of semi-natural vegetation in agricultural land at the European Union scale. For that, we use an innovative convergence-of-evidence mapping method. We also present an assessment and a classification of the relation between semi-natural vegetation and ecosystem service supply at the regional scale. The major improvements in our mapping method are the following: (1) both large and small patches of perennial vegetation are detected in fine-resolution satellite images by incorporating the spectral rule-based preliminary classifier, (2) the identification of semi-natural grassland is enhanced, (3) European ancillary maps are used to help mapping of woody vegetation and identification of agro-ecosystems. Validation shows that our output map is 34.3 % more accurate than pre-existing components. In addition, results show that regulating ecosystem services increase with the abundance of semi-natural vegetation in agricultural lands with a coefficient R 2 of 0.67. The results also show no specific trend in relation to provisioning ecosystem services. These findings mean that semi-natural vegetation is usually beneficial for regulating services, whereas the relation to provisioning services is strictly context-dependent. Overall our study supports greening measures design in the frame of the Common Agricultural Policy for 2014–2020. Results also will help to identify green infrastructure elements and priority areas for ecological restoration.

Thresholds of landscape change: a new tool to manage green infrastructure and social–economic development

An understanding of how and where a landscape can be improved with green infrastructure is important for the development of land-use policies. However, it is still a big challenge to manage landscapes due to a lack of condition-based diagnosis and consistent conflicts with social–economic interests. The purpose of this study is to identify the thresholds of landscape change and to explore new reference lines of policy decision-making for balancing social–economic development and green infrastructure management. Five different landscape types and their thresholds of landscape change were identified using parametric and piecewise linear models in the district of Haidian, Beijing, PR China, and their changes and social–economic drivers were analyzed with principal component analysis and a stepwise linear regression model for the time period 1991–2010. It is shown that different thresholds of different landscapes do exist and can be identified by the area of their key elements of green infrastructure. Integrating these thresholds into a social–economic context, it is shown where and how social–economic variables can be manipulated quantitatively to achieve development targets with respect to green infrastructure in individual towns and the entire district. Green infrastructure can be managed by changing just a small proportion of social–economic investment. This paper provides a useful tool to achieve a sustainable development by balancing green infrastructure with social–economic interests.

Sustainable Water Systems

Sustainable water systems often comprise complex combinations of traditional and new system components that mimic natural processes. These green systems aim to protect public health and safety, and restore natural and human landscapes. Green infrastructure elements such as most sustainable drainage systems trap storm water but may contaminate groundwater. There is a need to summarize recent trends in sustainable water systems management in a focused document. The aim of this special issue is therefore to disseminate and share scientific findings on novel sustainable water systems addressing recent problems and opportunities. This special issue focuses on the following key topics: climate change adaptation and vulnerability assessment of water resources systems; holistic water management; carbon credits; potable water savings; sustainable water technologies; nutrient management; holistic storm water reuse; water and wastewater infrastructure planning; ecological status of watercourses defined by the Water Framework Directive. The combined knowledge output advances the understanding of sustainable water, wastewater and storm water systems in the developed and developing world. The research highlights the need for integrated decision-support frameworks addressing the impact of climate change on local and national water resources management strategies involving all relevant stakeholders at all levels.

Sustainable surface water management and green infrastructure in UK urban catchment planning

Based on the analysis of impervious surface cover and water balance studies, it is argued that conventional, separately-sewered first-generation and alternative second-generation sustainable drainage systems (SUDS) cannot provide a fully sustainable surface water management approach for urban catchment planning. An extended approach based on the introduction of micro-and meso-vegetative SUDS systems into a wider green infrastructure (GI) framework is advocated to effectively address on-site and catchment urban surface water issues. The approach is based on the integrated planning implementation of street ‘greening’, with optimisation of existing biofiltration SUDS solutions, together with green roofs, downspout disconnection and sub-catchment riparian corridors to achieve a minimum 25–30% canopy cover level. A ‘leaf-out’ inventory procedure using GIS and satellite imagery can be employed to assess potential vegetative SUDS locations and types, and their likely impact upon the urban water cycle and receiving water health. However, there is a need to ensure that GI elements are incorporated into planning approaches and protocols for urban drainage infrastructure provision.

Green Infrastructure Gauge: A Tool for Evaluating Green Infrastructure Inclusion in Existing and Future Urban Areas

In the current global momentum of Eco and Smart Growth, Green Infrastructure (GI) concept is proving a popular means to accomplish sustainable development. This study's aim was to develop a Green Infrastructure Gauge (GIG), whose goal was to maximize presence of GI elements and functions in future urban master plans, and gauge GI status in existing urban areas. We derived relative value for each GI function through a questionnaire survey to public workers in 41 Japanese municipalities. It highlights the most valuable GI elements and functions future towns and cities can incorporate, to realize ecosystems and environment wellbeing, and herald sustainable future communities.

Borders without barriers – Structural functionality and green infrastructure in the Austrian–Hungarian transboundary region of Lake Neusiedl

Many ongoing processes in today's landscapes impact our environment considerably. Thus, it is enormously important to gather information on qualitative characteristics of our landscapes in order to effectively counteract the negative developments. Structural functionality as proxy for the assessment of habitat quality and species patterns has already proven potential to successfully describe ecological values. Completed by the measurement of green infrastructure information for a defined profile of a functional trait, a rapid and rough assessment of the qualitative state of habitats seems feasible. We therefore present in this study (i) an assessment of structural functionality based on the statistical analysis of landscape metrics, (ii) the measurement of green infrastructure and travelling costs for the ecoprofile of a Disturbance Sensitive Species Group (DSG) and (iii) an investigation if functionality and green infrastructure change between different types of landscapes and protection status. In the Lake Neusiedl region we selected 41 landscape samples based on a stratified random process. Based on orthophoto interpretation, we calculated landscape metrics with FRAGSTATS and reduced them to a core set of 13 indices by combining statistical results with literature review. Their relation to main ecological processes determined if the individual metric related positively or negatively with the land cover category and structural functionality was given by the average value of the landscape metrics. Green infrastructure elements were allocated with GUIDOS, whereas the travelling costs to move between them was also considered. Landscape elements of valuable matrix and connecting corridors ranked highest in structural functionality based on the calculated landscape indices but showed large differences between different land use regimes. Correlation and regression analysis confirmed the dependence of green infrastructure elements (corr. r2=0.877) as well as travelling costs (corr. r2=0.669) to functionality values. Protection status of the landscape samples proved to be a determining factor because functionality values as well as green infrastructure differed significantly (both with a p-value<0.05) with the exception of dissecting corridors, stepping stones and travelling costs. We conclude that one simple guideline for a holistic assessment of structural functionality is hardly reachable but we did set up a comprehensive rule set. Based on a transparent sampling procedure, a qualitative assessment of habitats and landscapes can easily be conducted. The complementary use of an ecoprofile enables the valuation of green infrastructure elements and the identification of major driving forces along with scenario development for sustainable landscape planning.

A national assessment of green infrastructure and change for the conterminous United States using morphological image processing

Green infrastructure is a popular framework for conservation planning. The main elements of green infrastructure are hubs and links. Hubs tend to be large areas of ‘natural’ vegetation and links tend to be linear features (e.g., streams) that connect hubs. Within the United States, green infrastructure projects can be characterized as: (1) reliant on classical geographic information system (GIS) techniques (e.g., overlay, buffering) for mapping; (2), mainly implemented by states and local jurisdictions; and (3) static assessments that do not routinely incorporate information on land-cover change. We introduce morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA) as a complementary way to map green infrastructure, extend the geographic scope to the conterminous United States, and incorporate land-cover change information. MSPA applies a series of image processing routines to a raster land-cover map to identify hubs, links, and related structural classes of land cover. We identified approximately 4000 large networks (>100 hubs) within the conterminous United States, of which approximately 10% crossed state boundaries. We also identified a net loss of up to 3.59 million ha of links and 1.72 million ha of hubs between 1992 and 2001. Our national assessment provides a backbone that states could use to coordinate their green infrastructure projects, and our incorporation of change illustrates the importance of land-cover dynamics for green infrastructure planning and assessment.