Elementary School-age Boys Research Articles

Developmental Trajectory of Conduct Problems Among Boys and Girls Receiving Psychoeducational Services at Elementary Schools.

Elementary public schools remain the most common venues for addressing children's severe conduct problems. Nevertheless, very few longitudinal studies have examined association between receiving psychoeducational services for conduct problems in school and subsequent conduct problem severity. This study explored if psychoeducational service reception contributed to reduce conduct problems in a sample of 434 elementary school-aged boys and girls presenting a high level of conduct problems. The study used a repeated measures design at 12-month intervals, for 4 years. Information regarding the severity of children's conduct problems and services was provided by parents and teachers. Latent Growth Modeling was used to identify a mean trajectory of conduct problems. Results revealed that psychoeducational services were associated with a decrease in conduct problems over time, but this association was only observed in boys. There was no association between service reception at study inception and the trajectory of conduct problems among girls. These results suggests that psychoeducational services are well suited to the difficulties of boys with conduct problems; however, they may call for a review of the services offered to girls in schools, both in terms of the detection of conduct problems in young girls, and in terms of their treatment options.

Effects of Suspension Versus Traditional Resistance Training on Explosive Strength in Elementary School-Aged Boys.

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of an 8-week program of resistance training (RT) or suspension training (ST) on explosive strength in prepubescent boys. Fifty-seven boys aged 10-11 years were assigned to 2 training groups, RT or ST or a control group (no training program). Boys trained twice weekly for 8 weeks. A significant interaction was reported with a large (P < .001, ηp2=.463), medium (P < .001, ηp2=.395), and small effect sized (P ≤ .001, ηp2=.218) in the 1-kg ball throw, 3-kg ball throw, and time-at-20-m test, respectively. There was no significant interaction in the countermovement vertical jump or the standing long jump. Changes from preintervention to postintervention for the 1-kg ball throw were 5.94% and 5.82% for the ST and RT, respectively, and 8.82% and 8.14% in the 3-kg ball throw for the ST and RT, respectively. The improvement in the 20-m sprint was 1.19% for the ST and 2.33% for the RT. Traditional RT and ST seem to be effective methods for improving explosive strength in prepubescent boys. ST could be considered as an alternative modality to optimize explosive strength training in school-based programs.

Validation of Dietary Reference Intakes for predicting energy requirements in elementary school-age children.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESDietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for energy are derived from total energy expenditure (TEE) measured using the doubly labelled water (DLW) method. The objective of this study was to assess the validity of DRI for predicting the energy requirements of elementary school-age children.SUBJECTS/METHODSThe present study involved 25 elementary school-age children aged between 9 and 11 years. TEE was assessed by the DLW method, and the results were compared with the TEE predicted by the DRI equations in order to evaluate accuracy.RESULTSThe subjects' TEE measured by the DLW method was 1,925.2 ± 380.9 kcal/day in boys and 1,930.0 ± 279.4 kcal/day in girls, whereas resting energy expenditure was 1,220.2 ± 176.9 kcal/day in boys and 1,245.9 ± 171.3 kcal/day for girls. The physical activity level was 1.58 ± 0.20 in boys and 1.55 ± 0.13 in girls. The mean bias between the predicted and measured TEE was 12.6% in boys and −1.6% in girls, and the percentage of accurate predictions was 28.6% and 63.6%, respectively. In boys, the equation resulted in underprediction of TEE among the subjects having low TEE values, whereas there was overprediction among subjects having high TEE values as shown by the Bland-Altman plot. On the contrary, this proportional bias was not observed in girls.CONCLUSIONSThe findings of this study suggest that the DRI equation for energy could result in the overestimation of energy requirements in elementary school-age boys. In the case of girls, the equations could be accurate at the group level. However, the DRI appears to be invalid for individual girls, as more than one third of girls had their TEE inaccurately predicted. We recommend more studies for confirmation of these results.

Predicting Depression and Anxiety from Oppositional Defiant Disorder Symptoms in Elementary School-Age Girls and Boys with Conduct Problems.

This study investigated the relationship between the three DSM-5 categories of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms (irritable mood, defiant behavior, vindictive behavior) and anxiety/depression in girls and boys with conduct problems (CP) while controlling for comorbid child psychopathology at baseline. Data were drawn from an ongoing longitudinal study of 6- to 9-year-old French-Canadian children (N=276; 40.8% girls) receiving special educational services for CP at school and followed for 2years. Using linear regression analysis, the results showed that irritable mood symptoms predicted a higher level of depression and anxiety in girls and boys 2years later, whereas the behavioral symptoms of ODD (e.g., defiant, vindictive symptoms) were linked to lower depression scores. The contribution of ODD symptoms to these predictions, while statistically significant, remained modest. The usefulness of ODD irritable symptoms as a marker for identifying girls and boys with CP who are more vulnerable to developing internalizing problems is discussed.

The development of the effect of peer monitoring on generosity differs among elementary school-age boys and girls.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of peer monitoring on generosity in boys and girls aged 6–12 years. A total of 120 elementary school students played a one-shot dictator game (DG) with and without peer monitoring by classmates. Children decided how to divide 10 chocolates between themselves and a classmate either in a condition in which their allocations were visible to their peers, or in private. While the effect of peer monitoring on the allocation amount in the DG was clearly present in boys, it was not observed in girls. Furthermore, the effect of peer monitoring in boys appeared at the age of 9 years. These results suggest that the motivation to draw peers’ attention plays a stronger role for older boys than for girls or younger boys. The potential roles of higher-order theory of mind, social roles, and emergence of secondary sex characteristics on the influence of peer monitoring on generosity shown by boys are discussed.

Teen responses when a younger school-age sibling has been bullied

The prevalence of bullying among children, and the sometimes tragic consequences as a result, has become a major concern in schools. The larger research for this study reported on in-depth interviews with 28 elementary and middle school-age boys and girls (7–12 years) who had experienced various forms of bullying and relational aggression by their peers, mostly on school grounds, and the responses of their parents and teachers. Responses of the children's teen siblings to the younger child's revelations of being bullied are the focus of this report. In-depth interviews with each teen sibling (n = 28) and with each bullied child revealed how the children viewed the teen siblings' supportive strategies. Almost all the children (89%) reported that their older siblings talked with them and offered advice. The teen siblings shared with the younger ones that they too (71%) had been bullied, or they knew someone who had been bullied (18%). Teens gave the advice to ‘bully back’ to 11% and advice to ‘tell someone’ to 32% of the younger children. The children felt quite positive about their older siblings' advice (89%), which did differ depending on the bullied child's gender. Teen siblings gave advice to ‘avoid bullies’ to 77% of female and to 27% of male younger children.

초등학교 남아의 인터넷 폭력게임 사용시간과 게임과몰입정도가 공격적 행동에 미치는 영향

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the time spent on violent internet games and game overindulgence on aggressive behavior exhibited by elementary school-aged boys and to investigate the mediating effects of self-control on the relationship between children's game overindulgence and their aggressive behavior. The subjects of this study were 118 fourth to sixth grade boys from five elementary schools. The instruments used were the aggression subscale of the Korean-Youth Self Report (Oh, Ha, Lee, & Hong, 2001), a questionnaire of the time spent playing violent internet games developed by the authors, the Internet Game Addiction Scale for Children (Kim, Lee, Kim, Kim, & Kim, 2006) and the Self-Control Scale (Nam, 1999). The data were analyzed by means of a Structural Equation Model (SEM). The results were as follows. First, children's self-control mediated the relationship between game overindulgence and aggressive

Relationships of Aggression Subtypes and Peer Status Among Aggressive Boys in General Education and Emotional/Behavioral Disorder (EBD) Classrooms

This study examines the concurrent and longitudinal relationships between reactive and proactive aggression and children's peer status. Participants were 94 Dutch elementary school-aged boys in self-contained special education classrooms for students with emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) and 47 boys with no disabilities in general education classrooms. Hierarchical and logistic regression analyses were conducted to test how aggression, context, and their interactions predicted participants' peer status, which encompassed social preference and social impact as indicated by classroom peers. Descriptive analyses show that both reactive and proactive aggression were more common in EBD classrooms. Classroom type moderated the concurrent and longitudinal relationships between subtypes of aggression and social preference. The results indicate that to understand the relationship between aggression and children's peer status, it is important to analyze the specific type of aggressive behavior and the context in which it occurs. These findings also suggest the importance of students and teachers' responses to aggression in reducing aggressive behavior.

Using Teacher Ratings to Assess the Association Between Mental Health Symptoms and Impairment in Children

The current study aimed to determine the extent of association between mental health symptoms and impairment in children using teacher ratings. Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires (SDQ) data were extracted from an administrative database for consecutively referred children to a school mental health service between 2004 and 2009 (n = 480). Incremental increases in symptoms predicted increasing impairment levels in the sample using both linear and dichotomized impairment outcomes (both p < 0.0001). Unexpectedly, high estimated probabilities of abnormal impairment were observed well within the normal symptom range, particularly for younger elementary school-aged boys. The findings suggest that screening efforts that depend on cut-points on the SDQ total problem scale may be missing many substantially impaired children. Methodological limitations are discussed.

Overestimation of Physical Abilities Among Boys With and Without ADHD

Objective: Children with ADHD have been widely reported to overestimate their abilities in social and academic domains, but a similar overestimation of physical abilities has not been examined. Method: Twenty-four elementary school-age boys with ADHD and fifteen boys without ADHD were compared on their ability to accurately estimate their ability to complete four lab-based physical tasks, varying on three levels of difficulty: (a) within their ability, (b) 8% beyond their ability, and (c) 13% beyond their ability. Results: Children with ADHD were significantly more likely than controls to overestimate their physical ability at difficult levels of the task. Conclusion: Implications of these results for preventing risky behaviors in children with ADHD are discussed.

Escape-to-Attention as a Potential Variable for Maintaining Problem Behavior in the School Setting

.Mueller, Sterling-Turner, and Moore (2005) reported a novel escape-to-attention (ETA) functional analysis condition in a school setting with one child. The current study replicates Mueller et al.’s functional analysis procedures with three elementary school-age boys referred for problem behavior. Functional analysis verified the participant’s problem behavior was maintained by escape from academic demands. Follow-up functional analyses in which target behaviors in escape versus ETA conditions were compared resulted in higher levels of target behavior in the ETA condition for 2 of the 3 participants. The current study also extended previous research by including a treatment analysis. Treatments designed to address escape and attention functions were more effective at reducing the target behaviors than treatments designed to target escape alone for all 3 participants. Results and implications for future research are discussed.

Development and validation of the social information processing application: A Web-based measure of social information processing patterns in elementary school-age boys.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of an audio computer-assisted self-interviewing Web-based software application called the Social Information Processing Application (SIP-AP) that was designed to assess social information processing skills in boys in 3rd through 5th grades. This study included a racially and ethnically diverse sample of 244 boys ages 8 through 12 (M = 9.4) from public elementary schools in 3 states. The SIP-AP includes 8 videotaped vignettes, filmed from the first-person perspective, that depict common misunderstandings among boys. Each vignette shows a negative outcome for the victim and ambiguous intent on the part of the perpetrator. Boys responded to 16 Web-based questions representing the 5 social information processing mechanisms, after viewing each vignette. Parents and teachers completed measures assessing boys' antisocial behavior. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a model positing the original 5 cognitive mechanisms fit the data well when the items representing prosocial cognitions were included on their own factor, creating a 6th factor. The internal consistencies for each of the 16 individual cognitions as well as for the 6 cognitive mechanism scales were excellent. Boys with elevated scores on 5 of the 6 cognitive mechanisms exhibited more antisocial behavior than boys whose scores were not elevated. These findings highlight the need for further research on the measurement of prosocial cognitions or cognitive strengths in boys in addition to assessing cognitive deficits. Findings suggest that the SIP-AP is a reliable and valid tool for use in future research of social information processing skills in boys.

Do Gender Differences Exist in the Academic Identification of African-American Elementary-School Aged Children?

The disidentification hypothesis predicts that African-American boys achieve less in school than African-American girls do because boys have less personal investment in doing well academically (i.e., they are disidentified). When do such gender differences emerge? Using self-perception and achievement data from longitudinal studies of children (N = 113) at high-risk for academic problems because they come from low-income families, the authors examined whether elementary school-aged and early adolescent African-American boys are more prone to low achievement and disidentification than African-American girls. Multiple regression analyses indicated no gender differences in reading or mathematics achievement between boys and girls at age 8 or at age 12. At 12, African-American boys' self-esteem was predicted by academic performance in ways similar to that of African-American girls. Thus, no gender differences emerged in elementary school achievement and no gender-specific disengagement patterns were confirmed among at-risk African-American students.

A risk model for disordered eating in late elementary school boys.

The authors tested the following risk model for disordered eating in late elementary school-age boys: Pubertal status is associated with increases in negative urgency, that is, the tendency to act rashly when distressed; high levels of negative urgency then influence binge eating through psychosocial learning; and binge eating influences purging. A sample of 908 fifth-grade boys completed questionnaire measures of puberty, negative urgency, dieting/thinness and eating expectancies, and eating pathology. Eating disorder symptoms were present in these young boys: 10% reported binge eating and 4.2% reported purging through self-induced vomiting. Each hypothesis in the risk model was supported. Boys this young do in fact engage in the maladaptive behaviors of binge eating and purging; it is crucial to develop explanatory risk models for this group. To this end, it appears that characteristics of boys, including their pubertal status, personalities, and psychosocial learning, help identify boys at risk.

Day-dependent step-count patterns and their persistence over 3 years in 8–10-year-old children: The LOOK project

Background: Physical activity in children is known to be generally lower at weekends but whether systematic day-to-day differences exist throughout the week is unclear.Aim: To determine if weekly patterns of pedometer-assessed physical activity (PPA) exist in elementary school-aged Australian boys and girls and whether they persist over 3 years.Subjects and methods: Seven-day pedometer measurements were recorded from 389 boys and 387 girls of initial age 8.0 (SD 0.3) in three successive years during spring. General linear mixed modelling was used to investigate patterns and the persistence of PPA.Results: A pattern did emerge, significant differences in PPA occurring between certain days of the week (p<0.001). This pattern was similar in each year, PPA increasing from Monday through to Friday, decreasing on Saturday and again on Sunday. PPA was greater in boys (p<0.001), but less so on weekends. Significant day-to-day and year-to-year intra-class correlations of PPA (0.14 and 0.29, respectively, both p<0.001)) within individuals provided evidence of tracking on a daily basis, and to a lesser extent yearly.Conclusions: A well-defined week-long pattern of steps/day emerged in these 8–10-year-old children, the pattern being similar in three consecutive years.

Adrenocortical Functioning in Boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Examining Subtypes of ADHD and Associated Comorbid Conditions

Disruptions to hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function have been associated with varying forms of psychopathology in children. Studies suggesting children with ADHD have blunted HPA function have been complicated by the prevalence of comorbid diagnoses and heterogeneity of ADHD. The goals of this research were to assess the relations between waking and stress-response salivary cortisol levels and comorbid disruptive behavior (DBD) and anxiety (AnxD) disorders and problems in boys with ADHD, and to examine whether cortisol levels varied across ADHD subtypes. One hundred seventy elementary school-age boys with ADHD provided salivary cortisol at waking and in reaction to venipuncture. Parent reports were used to assess boys' psychiatric diagnoses and severity of behavioral problems. Boys' comorbid AnxD and anxiety problems were associated with greater cortisol reactivity, whereas boys' comorbid DBD and oppositional problems predicted diminished adrenocortical activity. Reactive cortisol increases were greatest in boys with ADHD and comorbid AnxD, but without DBD. ADHD subtypes were not differentially associated with waking, pre-stress baseline, or reactive cortisol levels. However, comorbid DBD predicted decreased cortisol reactivity in boys with inattentive and hyperactive subtypes of ADHD, but not in boys with combined subtype of ADHD. The results clarify previous patterns of distinct and divergent dysregulations of HPA function associated with boys' varying kinds of psychopathology.

The Effects of a Targeted Intervention to Reduce Problem Behaviors

Behavior support in schools is increasingly viewed as a three-tier prevention effort in which universal interventions are used for primary prevention, targeted interventions are used for secondary prevention, and intensive interventions are used for tertiary prevention. A growing body of research has demonstrated the effectiveness of targeted interventions in decreasing the frequency of problem behaviors. The Check In—Check Out Program (CICO) is becoming a recognized targeted intervention. The present study examines if there is a functional relation between the implementation of CICO and a reduction in problem behaviors. Results indicate that implementation of CICO with four elementary school—age boys was functionally related to a reduction in problem behavior. Clinical and conceptual implications of these results, methodological limitations, and future research directions are reviewed.

Gender Differences in Peer and Parental Influences: Body Image Disturbance, Self-Worth, and Psychological Functioning in Preadolescent Children

The connections between body image disturbance and psychological functioning have been well established in samples of older adolescent girls and young women. Little is known, however, about body image in younger children. In particular, little is known about possible gender differences in preadolescent children. The current study explored self-reported body image disturbance and psychological functioning in relation to peer and parental influences in 141 elementary school-aged girls and boys aged 8‐11. Results suggest that girls are more concerned about dieting and are more preoccupied with their weight than are boys. Girls also reported a greater drive for thinness and a higher level of family history of eating concerns than did boys. Correlations suggested that girls’ experiences of body image concerns (body dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness) were related to a number of factors (such as family history of eating concerns, peer influences, teasing, depression, and global self-worth) whereas boys’ experiences of body image concerns were related to fewer factors. On the basis of these findings, the assessment and treatment of body image concerns in preadolescent children (especially girls) are of great importance. Implications for intervention and prevention programs are discussed.

JUMPING IMPACT FORCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN

The purpose of this study was to compare differences in landing force across age and gender in elementary school-age children. Differences found may provide information toward understanding gender differences in lower extremity injuries related to jumping activities. Children (n = 143) in grades K through 5 (K,G1,G2,G3,G4,G5) participated in this study. All subjects were free of any lower extremity musculoskeletal injury. Kinetic data (500 Hz) was collected using an AMTI force plate. Each subject was asked to stand on the force plate and then jump as high as possible × 5 attempts with a short rest period between each jump. Trials 3–5 were averaged and used for the analysis. Measures of bodyweights (BW) were used to normalize across subjects. A 2x6 factorial analysis provided the following findings. Significant differences were found for gender and grade. However, no interaction (gender × grade) was observed. Subjects in G5, regardless of gender, exhibited a decrease in landing force compared to all other grades (G5 = 2.00 BW, G4 = 2.42 BW, G3 = 2.52 BW, G2 = 2.61 BW, G1 = 2.38 BW, K = 2.47 BW). No other differences by grade were observed. Across all grades, there was a significant gender difference (2.45 BW males vs 2.34 BW females). The results of this study indicate that when jumping, elementary school-age boys land with greater impact than girls. Across grades, G5 subjects exhibited a decrease in impact when compared to younger subjects. Based on the kinetic data, it is inconclusive whether the results are due to higher jump heights or different landing strategies. Kinematic data (yet to be analyzed) may help to differentiate the cause of this difference and provide additional insight into the potential mechanisms of lower extremity injuries.

Classroom Behavior of Elementary School-Age Boys with Fragile X Syndrome

Despite reports suggesting numerous academic and social behavior deficits in boys with fragile X syndrome (FXS), little information is available concerning their actual classroom academic and social behavior. In this study, direct observational data were collected on the behavior of 26 elementary school-age boys with FXS during classroom academic activities in primarily self-contained special education classrooms. Results indicated moderate levels of academic engagement during periods of academic instruction, comparable to that of their classroom peers. Classroom engagement was not related to intrasubject variables such as severity of delay, autism status, or medication usage. A general measure of classroom quality and instruction was significantly correlated with engagement. Relatively low levels of stereotypic or self-injurious behavior were observed. These findings are discussed in relation to the existing engagement literature for school-age individuals with disabilities and issues concerning syndrome specific behaviors.