Elemental Carbon Measurements Research Articles

Abundance and seasonal characteristics of elemental and organic carbon in Hong Kong PM10

Abstract We review here measurements of elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC) in a monitoring network of nine general stations and one roadside station in Hong Kong from 1998 to 2001. The territory-wide mean values for OC and EC in respirable suspended particulate matter (RSP or PM10) during this period are 8.89 and 4.66 μg C/m3, respectively. OC has a clear seasonal pattern with higher concentrations observed in the winter than in the summer at all the monitoring stations. The wintertime OC is two times of or higher than the summertime OC at each of the monitoring stations. Air masses of higher particulate loading enriched with OC transported from northern China are mainly responsible for the higher OC concentrations in the winter. To the contrary, the seasonality of EC is much weaker and variable among the monitoring sites. EC seasonality is found to depend on the distance from and relative location to the city's container port. A cluster of five stations to the immediately north of the container port have higher EC levels in the summer than in the winter as a result of being downwind of ship emissions in the summer, but upwind in the winter. EC concentrations at the three stations further north of the container port does not have discernable seasonality whereas EC at the two stations south of the port have the same seasonality as OC. The variable EC seasonality is a result of two counteracting factors, i.e., stronger influence of marine vessel emissions in the summer versus input of dirtier air masses in the winter. This also reveals that ship emissions at the port are important contributors to EC loadings in the air in Hong Kong. Further efforts are needed to characterize aerosol source profiles of ship emissions for quantifying their relative contributions to the ambient PM10 in the city.

Estimation of Diesel Particulate Matter Concentrations in a School Bus Using a Fuel-Based Tracer: Sensitive and Specific Method for Quantifying Vehicle Contributions

Particulate matter from diesel exhaust (DPM) is a pollutant of increasing concern, but its concentrations are difficult to measure in the environment. There are no unique chemical characteristics for DPM, so elemental carbon (EC) and black carbon (BC) measurements have historically been used to estimate its concentrations. However, both methods have limitations, and neither is capable of identifying specific sources. That results in significant uncertainties in the inferred DPM concentrations. In this study an intentional fuel-based tracer, iridium, was used to mark the DPM from a school bus's exhaust. Emissions tests established the mass ratio of DPM-iridium in the exhaust. Iridium measurements inside the bus during normal operations could then be used to calculate DPM concentrations without the limitations of methods relying on nonspecific markers. Previous studies have attributed in-bus concentrations of more than 30 μ/m3 to the bus's exhaust, but they relied on nonspecific methods with a sensitivity of approximately 0.1 μ/m3. In this study the average measured DPMSB concentration was 0.22 μ/m3—about 1% of previous estimates. Measurement sensitivity was approximately 0.001 μ/m3—100 times better than that of other methods. The sensitivity and specificity achieved show that this tracer method can resolve major ambiguities and uncertainties in estimates of actual DPM concentrations. The ability to estimate accurately the contributions of different sources to DPM concentrations provides a needed tool to evaluate proposed emission reduction strategies reliably.

Evaluation of elemental carbon as a marker for diesel particulate matter

Elemental carbon (EC) in atmospheric particulate matter originates from a broad range of sources in many urban locations. As health and air quality studies are using elemental carbon measurements to better understand the impact of diesel engines and other combustion sources, there is a great need to clearly understand the relative source contributions to EC concentrations in the atmosphere. However, the different analytical techniques currently used to measure EC do not show good agreement for many particulate matter samples. To this end, studies that use EC as a tracer and integrate different analytical techniques for EC can significantly bias estimates of source contributions to atmospheric particulate matter. In addition, source attribution studies that do not properly address all sources of EC in the atmosphere can also lead to inaccuracies and biases. To better understand the use of EC as a tracer, a review of the distribution of EC in the primary particulate matter emissions from air pollution sources using different analytical methods is discussed. A review of previous apportionment studies of particulate matter is presented to elucidate the fraction of EC that results from emissions from diesel engines in urban locations. These results demonstrate that EC is not a unique tracer for diesel exhaust and efforts to utilize EC as an indicator of diesel exhaust must properly address other sources of EC as well as utilize a consistent measurement technique for EC when comparing source and ambient EC measurements to avoid significant biases.

Observations of elemental carbon and absorption during ACE‐Asia and implications for aerosol radiative properties and climate forcing

Measurements of elemental carbon (EC) during the Asian Pacific Regional Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE‐Asia) show that significant amounts of EC were found in the coarse particle phase during yellow sand events. Coagulation during long‐range transport is consistent with this observation. The daily averaged specific mass absorption efficiencies of EC were calculated, yielding values of 12.6 ± 2.6 and 14.8 ± 2.3 m2/g for PM10 (particulate matter <10 μm diameter) and PM1, respectively. On a limited number of days, the absorption efficiency for the coarse particles only (PM10 − PM1) was determined to be 5.7 ± 1.6 m2/g during dust days and 2.0 ± 1.0 m2/g for nondust days. These measurements suggest that fine particulate EC was internally mixed and that the dust was possibly somewhat absorbing. Specific mass absorption efficiency was observed to be inversely related to EC mass concentration, a result that does not appear to reflect only air mass aging effects. We speculate that if this observation holds on a global scale, it would reduce the effectiveness of a strategy for mitigating climate change by reducing EC emissions. Model simulations of idealized nonspherical dust radiative properties predict that scattering is strongly (by nearly a factor of 3) dependent on geometry, while absorption is a very weak function of geometry. The net change in shortwave absorption by polluted dust layers due to coagulation of EC with dust is predicted by model calculations to range between −42% and +58%, depending on the assumption about the initial mixing state of the EC and the dust optical properties, with the observations supporting values in the range of −10 to −40%.

Simultaneous measurements of particulate elemental carbon on the ground observation network over the western North Pacific during the ACE‐Asia campaign

The measurements of atmospheric aerosol and associated species have been carried out on the ground observation network over the western North Pacific as part of the Variability of Marine Aerosol Properties (VMAP) project. The network consists of four Japanese islands (Rishiri, Sado, Hachijo, and Chichi‐jima), ranging widely in latitudes from 25°N to 45°N along with the line of 140°E. In this paper, we report on simultaneous measurements of particulate elemental carbon (EC) on the four islands from March to May 2001, which cooperated with the Asia‐Pacific Regional Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE‐Asia) campaign, in order to characterize the outflow patterns of continental polluted air masses to the North Pacific. The mean concentrations of particulate EC in the four islands during this period ranged from 0.18 to 0.60 μg m−3. It is interesting to note that the temporal variations in the concentrations of particulate EC in Rishiri and Sado, which are located in the northern region of Japan (35°N–45°N), synchronized with each other. The EC concentrations in Hachijo and Chichi‐jima, located in the southern region of Japan (25°N–35°N), also showed similar temporal variations with each other but did not synchronize with those in Rishiri and Sado. These results demonstrate that the transport patterns of the polluted air masses from the east Asian continent to the northern regions of the northwestern Pacific are often different from those to the southern regions. It was also found that continental air masses are usually accompanied by pollutants over the southern regions but not over the northern regions of the northwestern Pacific.

Sources of interference in field studies of diesel exhaust emissions.

This article describes interferences encountered in a variety of occupational settings during industrial hygiene surveys of diesel particulate material (DPM) using the NIOSH 5040 Method. The method yields time-weighted-average measurements of elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), and total carbon (TC = EC + OC). NIOSH recommends EC as proxy for DPM, but other agencies (e.g., MSHA) regulate exposure as TC. Surveys were conducted in an engine factory and a wood treatment plant where diesel equipment was used, and in a foundry where its use was being considered. Full shift samples were collected using open-faced cassettes and cyclones fitted with 37-mm quartz fiber filters analyzed by the NIOSH 5040 Method. Non-DPM-related interferences were noted for both the OC and EC. In the engine factory and wood treatment facility, OC measurements were very high (range of 10.0-1600 microg/m(3)), while EC levels were mostly below the LOD. These findings almost certainly reflect interferences by cutting oil mists and airborne creosote respectively. In the foundry, EC levels were high and comprised mainly of larger (>4 microm) particles (open face samples: arithmetic mean = 136 microg/m(3), geometric mean = 74.0 microg/m(3); cyclone samples: arithmetic mean = 30.2 microg/m(3), geometric mean = 14.7 microg/m(3)). These findings suggest that OC interferences should be suspected if the EC:TC ratio is <0.35 and, if DPM surveys are performed with open-faced samplers, at least a small number of size-selective samplers should be employed to assure that results do not reflect EC interference by larger (i.e., >1-4 microm) particles. They also support the ACGIH decision to modify its proposed DPM TLV to specifically consider elemental carbon, rather than total carbon.

Exposures to Diesel Exhaust in the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 1950–1990

A prior case-control study found a positive, monotonic exposure-response relationship between exposure to diesel exhaust and lung cancer among decedents of the Central States Conference of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. In response to critiques of the Teamsters' exposure estimates by the Health Effects Institute's Diesel Epidemiology Panel, historical exposures and associated uncertainties are investigated here. Historic diesel exhaust exposures are predicted as a function of heavy-duty diesel truck emissions, increasing use of diesel engines, and occupational elemental carbon (EC) measurements taken during the late 1980s and early 1990s. EC from diesel and nondiesel sources is distinguished in light of recent studies indicating a substantial contribution of gasoline vehicles to ambient EC. Monte Carlo sampling is used to characterize exposure distributions. The methodology used in this article—a probabilistic model for historical exposure assessment—is novel.

Exposures to diesel exhaust in the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 1950-1990.

A prior case-control study found a positive, monotonic exposure-response relationship between exposure to diesel exhaust and lung cancer among decedents of the Central States Conference of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. In response to critiques of the Teamsters' exposure estimates by the Health Effects Institute's Diesel Epidemiology Panel, historical exposures and associated uncertainties are investigated here. Historic diesel exhaust exposures are predicted as a function of heavy-duty diesel truck emissions, increasing use of diesel engines, and occupational elemental carbon (EC) measurements taken during the late 1980s and early 1990s. EC from diesel and nondiesel sources is distinguished in light of recent studies indicating a substantial contribution of gasoline vehicles to ambient EC. Monte Carlo sampling is used to characterize exposure distributions. The methodology used in this article-a probabilistic model for historical exposure assessment-is novel.

Thermal analysis in cultural heritage safeguard: an application

Damage layer formation on buildings is due to the deposition of atmospheric pollutants and their interaction with the underlying materials. The composition of black crusts is therefore closely related to the characteristics and levels of pollution in the surrounding environment. Thus, the study of its constituents is of fundamental importance in planning strategies for the protection and conservation of monuments and historic buildings. Damage layers have been shown to be primarily composed of carbonaceous particles embedded in gypsum, pointing to the overwhelming role of combustion-derived air pollution in their formation. The identification and evaluation of elemental carbon and other carbon species constituting the non-carbonate fraction of total carbon is required in investigating the damage on historic buildings in urban areas. The removal of organic carbon is a critical step in the analytical methodologies used for the measurement of elemental carbon. The paper describes a study performed on black crust samples from historic buildings of two Italian towns, on which the carbon compound discrimination was achieved by applying an analytical methodology based on thermal analysis.

Organic and elemental carbon measurements during ACE-Asia suggest a longer atmospheric lifetime for elemental carbon.

During the ACE-Asia intensive field campaign (March 14-April 20, 2001), PM1.0 organic (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) concentrations were measured onboard the NOAA R/V Ronald H. Brown over the Northwest Pacific Ocean using a semi-continuous automated carbon analyzer downstream of a carbon-impregnated filter denuder. This OC and EC measurement achieved a mean time resolution of about 200 min over the Pacific Ocean, substantially lower than that achieved previously (24 h). The semi-continuous measurements, in which the adsorption artifact was substantially reduced using the denuder, showed good agreement with integrated artifact-corrected measurements made without a denuder. Mean particulate OC and EC concentrations were 0.21 and 0.09, 0.70 and 0.29, 1.00 and 0.27, and 2.43 and 0.66 microg of C m(-3) over the background Pacific Ocean, Asian-influenced Pacific Ocean, offshore of Japan, and Sea of Japan, respectively. On April 11, 90-min average OC and EC concentrations peaked at 4.0 and 1.3 microg of C m(-3), respectively, offshore of Korea over the Sea of Japan. The OC/EC ratio of 3.7 over the Sea of Japan and offshore of Japan was substantially higher than that of 2.5 over the Asian-influenced Pacific Ocean, even though backward air mass trajectories put the "Asian-influenced Pacific Ocean" sample downwind. The OC/EC ratio decreased with increasing time since the air mass encountered the source regions of China, Japan, and Korea. This suggests a longer atmospheric residence time for EC than for OC.

Urban aerosol radiative properties: Measurements during the 1999 Atlanta Supersite Experiment

As part of the Atlanta Supersite 1999 study, aerosol radiative and related physical and chemical properties are examined on the basis of measurements of PM2.5 (aerosol particles with aerodynamic diameters, Dp, less than 2.5 μm) in urban Atlanta. In addition to potential compliance issues with proposed regulatory standards, PM2.5 concentrations in Atlanta and the surrounding region are large enough to have an important impact on atmospheric radiative transfer and hence visibility and potentially regional climate. Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the light scattering by PM2.5 (σsp at 530 nm) and absorption coefficients (σap at 550 nm) measured at a controlled relative humidity of 49 ± 5% are 121 ± 48 and 16 ± 12 Mm−1, respectively. Though the mean light extinction coefficient (σep) in Atlanta is much larger than background sites, it is comparable to nonurban areas in the interior southeast United States highlighting the contribution of a regional haze here. The single scattering albedo (ωo) in Atlanta is 0.87 ± 0.08 and is ∼10% lower than reported in nonurban polluted sites, likely a result of the emission of elemental carbon (EC) from mobile sources. A pronounced diel pattern in aerosol properties is observed with clear influences from mobile sources (morning rush hour maxima in concentrations, particularly soot‐related indicators) and atmospheric mixing (afternoon minima). A strong linear relationship between σsp and PM2.5 is observed, and using several techniques, gives a range of mean mass scattering efficiencies (Esp) from = 3.5 to 4.4 m2 g−1. EC and σap are observed to have a relationship though less strongly correlated than σsp and PM2.5. Four methods of determining the mass absorption efficiency of EC give Eap ranging from 5.3 to 18.3 m2 g−1. This wide range of values is a result of the variability in aerosol properties, uncertainties in the light absorption method, and in particular, differences in the EC measurement techniques. Best agreement was found using measured EC mass distributions using a multistage impactor in comparison to σap calculated with a Mie code yielding Eap = 9.5 ± 1.5 m2 g−1, while EC mass summed from the impactor stages in comparison to measured σap gives Eap = 9.3 ± 3.2 m2 g−1. Mie light‐scattering calculations using inputs of measured mass and EC size distributions give geometric mean light scattering and absorption Dp = 0.54 and 0.13 μm, respectively, and show the dominance of the submicrometer diameter particles to light extinction in the urban environment. Based on the measured aerosol optical depth in Atlanta, δa (500 nm) = 0.44 ± 0.22, and other radiative measurements, a best estimate of the average direct aerosol radiative forcing at the top of the atmosphere (a measure of the climate significance) is ΔF = −11 ± 6 W m−2 in Atlanta. This value is an order of magnitude greater than global mean estimates for aerosols underscoring the influence of aerosol particles on radiative transfer in the urban environment.

Semicontinuous aerosol carbon measurements: Comparison of Atlanta Supersite measurements

An intensive field campaign of the Atlanta Supersite Experiment was carried out at a ground‐based measurement site on Jefferson Street in midtown Atlanta, Georgia, from 3 August to 1 September 1999. This paper examines the semicontinuous particulate organic and elemental measurements that were made as a part of the experiment. Measurements were made using a Rutgers University/Oregon Graduate Institute in situ thermal‐optical carbon analyzer, Rupprecht and Patashnick 5400 ambient carbon particulate monitor, Radiance Research particle soot absorption photometer, Aerosol Dynamics flash vaporization carbon analyzer, and Magee Scientific AE‐16 Aethalometer. The “intersampler precision” with which semicontinuous particulate total carbon (TC), organic carbon (OC), and elemental carbon (EC) were measured is 7, 13, and 26%, expressed as pooled coefficients of variation of 2, 3, and 4 instruments, respectively. Correlations between pairs of OC measurements are moderate (R2 = 54–73%), and correlations between pairs of EC measurements are high (R2 = 74–97%). Differences in reported OC concentrations are small compared to differences in EC concentrations; intersampler EC concentration differences result from differences (1) in the operational definitions of OC and EC, (2) in the calibration of optical instruments, and (3) because EC values are closer to limits of detection. This agreement between semicontinuous samplers is quite good, especially in light of previous particulate carbon comparisons. Reasons for measurement differences and benefits of automated time‐resolved measurements are discussed.

Evaluation of Elemental and Black Carbon Measurements from the GAViM and IMPROVE Networks

The GAViM program provides fine particulate and visibility data for several remote locations in Canada. Two long-term intercomparison studies between the GAViM and a major U.S. aerosol monitoring network, IMPROVE, were used to evaluate the uncertainty in the analytical data produced by proton induced x-ray emission (PIXE), proton elastic scattering analysis (PESA), and gravimetric analysis. GAViM and IMPROVE agreed well for elements from Fe to Zn where PIXE is the most sensitive; the relative difference between the 2 networks for Fe and Zn was <2%. Some lighter elements, e.g., sodium or sulphur, revealed a difference of 10-20%. Furthermore, an empiric conversion scheme for the GAViM absorption data produced by the laser integrated plate method (LIPM) was derived from the comparison to the IMPROVE thermal/optical reflectance (TOR) data. This conversion depends on the aerosol composition and is therefore site specific. It allows estimation of the elemental carbon concentrations from the historic raw light absorption values obtained by LIPM. If the mass attenuation coefficient of the fine aerosol collected at the 2 remote GAViM sites is assumed to be equal to 10 m 2 /g, then the results imply that the light absorption coefficient measured by LIPM is generally higher than the true value by up to a factor of 1.3 or 1.8, respectively. In both cases, LIPM overestimated the black carbon content, mostly for the lightly loaded samples.

Diesel exhaust exposure in the Canadian railroad work environment.

An investigation of occupational exposure to diesel exhaust, in terms of elemental carbon, was conducted as part of a feasibility study in the Canadian railroad industry. Both personal and area samples were collected from three major operating divisions of the railways: mechanical service, transportation, and engineering. A total of 255 elemental carbon samples have been described. The results show that all but six elemental carbon concentrations, expressed as size-selective respirable air samples taken using a 10 mm nylon cyclone, are well below the 2001 proposed American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists' (ACGIH) threshold limit value (TLV) of 20 microg/m3. The concentration of diesel exhaust, expressed as elemental carbon, in the railroad industry is much lower than that in some other major industries such as mining and forklift truck operations. If the TLV is to be applicable to a broad range of workplace settings such as railroad, construction, and mining, the use of a TLV that is based on an elemental carbon measurement of size selective respirable samples, as recommended in the 2001 ACGIH proposal, would appear to be the most valid strategy for control of exposure to diesel exhaust.

Evaluation of OC/EC Speciation by Thermal Manganese Dioxide Oxidation and the IMPROVE Method

Ambient particulate samples are routinely analyzed for organic and elemental carbon (OC/EC) using either thermal manganese dioxide oxidation (TMO) or thermal volatil-ization-pyrolysis correction methods, such as the Inter-agency Monitoring of PROtected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) method with correction by reflectance, or a variation of the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Method 5040 using thermal optical transmittance (TOT). With TMO, EC is modeled after the oxidation properties of submicron graphite and needle coke by MnO2, and is the fraction of total carbon (TC) that is not oxidized at >525 °C. In thermal volatilization methods, EC is the fraction of TC that accounts for the light extinction properties of the sample at the start of analysis. Chow et al. (2001) compared IMPROVE and NIOSH methods implemented on the same instrument using 60 samples of various types and found that NIOSH EC was lower than IMPROVE. This study compares total, organic, and elemental carbon measurements from the TMO and IMPROVE thermal optical reflectance (TOR) methods using a sample set consisting of 60 IMPROVE nonurban, 16 Korean urban, 10 Hong Kong urban, and 14 synthetic carbon black samples.

Comparison and evaluation of in situ and filter carbon measurements at the Fresno Supersite

The Fresno Supersite in Fresno, California, USA, acquires in situ 5‐ to 60‐min average PM2.5 organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), and total carbon (TC) measurements by the following methods: (1) thermal evolution carbon analyzer for organic, elemental, and total carbon; (2) single‐wavelength and seven‐color aethalometer for black carbon (BC); and (3) photoionization for particle‐bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Twenty‐four‐hour average PM2.5 filter‐based measurements include (1) nondenuded quartz filters with no backup filter in a PM2.5 Federal Reference Method (FRM) sampler; (2) quartz filters behind an organic carbon denuder with a quartz backup filter in a Reference Ambient Aerosol Sampler (RAAS); (3) nondenuded quartz filters with backup filter in a RAAS; and (4) nondenuded quartz filters with no backup filter in a sequential filter sampler. Filter samples are analyzed after sampling by the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) thermal/optical reflectance carbon analysis protocol. Collocated measurements are examined for year 2000. Measurement equivalence is found for PM2.5 mass, light transmission, and TC between the FRM and RAAS speciation samplers. The average ratios of front filter carbon between the denuded and nondenuded channels in the RAAS sampler are 0.83 ± 0.19 for TC, 0.81 ± 0.20 for OC, and 1.01 ± 0.33 for EC. The average differences for TC and OC are low (1.2 to 1.4 μg m‐3) and are comparable to the measurement uncertainties. Continuous thermal evolution carbon measurements are not comparable to filter measurements. Aethalometer BC and filter EC are highly correlated, but filter EC is consistently 20–25% higher than continuous aethalometer BC. Pairwise comparisons show filter EC measurements acquired in this study are predictable from aethalometer BC measurements.

Assessment of exposure to traffic related air pollution of children attending schools near motorways

To assess exposure to air pollution from traffic of children attending schools near motorways, traffic related air pollution (PM 2.5,NO 2 and benzene) was measured in and outside 24 schools located within 400 m of motorways in the Netherlands. Reflectance of PM 2.5 filters was measured as a proxy for elemental carbon (EC). The relationship between this proxy and measurements of EC was studied in a sub-sample and a high correlation was established. In both indoor and outdoor air, concentrations of PM 2.5 and “soot” significantly increased with increasing truck traffic density and significantly decreased with increasing distance. Indoor NO 2 concentrations significantly increased with increasing car traffic. The percentage of time that the school was downwind of the motorway during the measurements was significantly associated with “soot” and NO 2, but not with PM 2.5 and benzene. Estimated yearly averaged concentrations, calculated after standardising for differences in the background concentrations during the measurements, showed an about 2.5 fold range in “soot”, benzene (indoors and outdoors) and NO 2 (indoors) concentrations. For PM 2.5 (indoors and outdoors) and NO 2 outdoors the range was smaller (1.4–1.7). Standardised concentrations were highly correlated with the results of two other approaches that were used to order the exposures at the schools. This study has shown that concentrations of air pollutants in and outside schools near motorways are significantly associated with distance, traffic density and composition, and percentage of time downwind. These variables can therefore be used to assess exposure to traffic related air pollution of subjects living near motorways. Furthermore, the yearly averaged concentrations of PM 2.5, “soot”, NO 2 and benzene can be used as a more direct measure of long-term exposure in epidemiological studies of the children attending the 24 schools.

Time-Resolved Characterization of Diesel Particulate Emissions. 2. Instruments for Elemental and Organic Carbon Measurements

The measurement of elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC) mass for particles emitted by diesel vehicles is currently accomplished using particle collection on filters, followed by analysis using the thermal/optical reflectance carbon analysis method (TOR) or one of its variations. Such filter methods limit time resolution to a minimum of several minutes, making it impossible to study emissions during transient operating conditions. Testing of five different measurement methods has demonstrated that fast response measurement of diesel exhaust particulate EC and OC concentrations, consistent with TOR filter measurements, is feasible using existing technology. EC mass concentrations are best measured through determination of particulate light absorption with a photoacoustic instrument or determination of light extinction with a smoke meter. The photoacoustic instrument has the better dynamic range and sensitivity, whereas the smoke meter is a simpler instrument. Fast response OC measurements cannot be made with any single instrument tested. However, a combination of real time weighing as implemented in the tapered element oscillating microbalance with the photoacoustic instrument has been shown to be capable of determining OC concentrations with good time response. The addition of a nephelometer to the OC measurement could potentially improve time resolution, freedom from interferences, and sensitivity.

Development and Laboratory Performance Evaluation of a Personal Multipollutant Sampler for Simultaneous Measurements of Particulate and Gaseous Pollutants

A personal multipollutant sampler has been developed. This sampler can be used for measuring exposures to particulate matter and criteria gases. The system uses asingle personalsampling pump that operates at a flow rate of 5.2 l/min. The basic unit consists of two impaction-based samplers for PM2.5 and PM10 attached to a single elutriator. Two mini PM2.5 samplers are also attached to the elutriator for organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), sulfate, and nitrate measurements. For the collection of nitrate and sulfate, the minisampler includes a miniaturized honeycomb glass denuder that is placed upstream of the filter to remove nitric acid and sulfur dioxide and to minimize artifacts. Two passive samplers can also be attached to the elutriator for measurements of gaseous copollutants such as O3, SO2, and NO2. The performance of the multipollutant sampler was examined through a series of laboratory chamber tests. The results showed a good agreement between the multipollutant sampler and the reference m...

A Survey of Exposure to Diesel Engine Exhaust Emissions in the Workplace

Forty sites were visited during a survey of exposures to diesel engine exhaust emissions. Personal and background exposure to gaseous components, respirable dust, elemental carbon, organic carbon and total carbon were measured and details of control systems were recorded. The results show a wide spread in exposure patterns reflecting the different work practices, job categories of employees and the control methods used. However, sites where fork-lift trucks were in use consistently produced the highest exposures. The survey results suggest that the measurement of elemental carbon could be used as an indicator of exposure to diesel engine exhaust emissions.