Electrostatic Discharge Research Articles

Synthesis and Characteristics of 1,2,4,5-Tetrazines for Using as High Energy Density Materials (HEDMs)

Nitrogen-rich heterocycles constitute a family of high energy density materials (HEDMs) that have been developing intensively in recent years. A representative of this class is 1,2,4,5-tetrazine, a six-membered aromatic compound containing four nitrogen atoms in the ring. Many energetic compounds with this scaffold exhibit thermal stability, high density, and insensitivity to various stimuli, including friction, impact, and electrostatic discharge. This review presents methods for constructing 1,2,4,5-tetrazine precursors from acyclic reagents and describes their chemical modifications, leading to new energetic compounds with potential applications in the industry as explosives, propellants, or pyrotechnics. Synthetic procedures and reaction conditions are discussed, along with the detonation parameters of new nitrogen-rich tetrazine-based products, which allow estimation of their application potential.

Electrostatic discharge failure and protection of single-walled carbon nanotube field-effect transistors

Abstract Carbon nanotube based field effect transistors (CNT-FETs) have been considered as a preferred alternative to the traditional Si-based MOSFETs. Here we investigated the electrostatic discharge (ESD) failure characteristics of single-walled CNT (SWCNT) FET. In ESD event, the instantaneous high current will generate an amount of heat in the CNT-FET channel resulting in its thermal failure owing to its randomly aligned SWCNT networks. The CNT-FET failure mechanism and its ESD characteristics with various key parameters are studied in detail. These insights provide new ideas and a guidance for the research and application of CNT-FETs. In order to achieve a full chip ESD protection network for CNT chips, we referred to commonly used ESD devices in silicon-based processes and designed CNT based ESD devices, including GD-CNT-FET (Gated-VDD CNT-FET) and RC-CNT-FET (RC trigger CNT-FET). CNT-FET with randomly aligned SWCNT networks, whose failure current level is only about 50µA/µm, needs larger areas to achieve effective ESD protection.

Electromagnetic radiation attenuation materials

The shielding electromagnetic (EM) waves is a very important field of the electronics, telecommunications and IT industries. The phenomenon of electromagnetic interference (EMI) can be a source of interference in electronic systems, which can both disrupt the operation of systems and provide a breach to intercept the flow of classified information. Hence, it is necessary to shield electronic and IT systems to prevent the coupling of circuits and prevent the monitoring of data emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves. An additional threat resulting from the EMI phenomenon is the possibility of inducing high voltages and currents in circuits that may temporarily or permanently damage electronic systems as a result of high-power electromagnetic pulses. Examples of sources of high-power impulses can be, for example, atmospheric discharges, gasoline engine ignition systems, electrostatic discharges, solar discharges, cosmic rays and military hardware, such as electromagnetic directed energy weapons. The paper will present the results of research carried out as part of interdisciplinary projects related to security threats to ICT systems in the area of critical infrastructure.

Atomization Performance of Spray Nozzles and Their Influence on Fine Particle Collection in the Wet Electrostatic Precipitator

The wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP) is crucial for the ultra-purification of blast furnace gas in gas-fired generator units. To address issues like high water consumption, poor atomization leading to spark discharge, and uneven water mist distribution, a water mist testing system using a laser particle-size analyzer was established. Eight spray nozzles were tested to identify the optimal atomization performance and operating parameters. The effect of chemical agglomeration agents on nozzle atomization and particle capture efficiency was also examined. The results show that the atomization effect was the best when the operating water pressure was 0.5 MPa. The D50 of the blast furnace dust increased from 8.529 μm to 20.30 μm after electrostatic precipitation when the 1/8 rotating core nozzles were installed in the WESP, and the proportion of dust particles whose diameter is ≤5 μm decreased by 20.09% compared with the dust emitted from the inlet. The total dust removal efficiency reached 83.41%. With chemical agglomeration, the D50 reached 24.88 μm, and removal efficiency rose to 96.98%. Among the tested nozzles, the 1/8 rotating core nozzle was the most effective, combining superior atomization, maximum dust removal efficiency, and minimal water consumption, making it ideal for blast furnace gas purification.

Engineering Triboelectric Paper for Energy Harvesting and Smart Sensing.

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) represent a promising technology for energy harvesting and self-powered sensing with a wide range of applications. Despite their potential, challenges such as the need for cost-effective, large-area electrodes and engineering sustainable triboelectric materials remain, especially given the impending restrictions on single-use engineering plastics in Europe. To address these challenges, engineering nano-graphite-coated paper is presented as a sustainable and high-performance alternative for triboelectric layers. Moreover, this material, which can be produced on an industrial scale, offers a viable replacement for metal electrodes. The combination of nano-graphite and paper, with its large contact area and inherent surface roughness, enables ultra-high power densities exceeding 14 kWm-2, driven by electrostatic discharge at the surface. Beyond energy harvesting, smart sensors are developed for floors and walls that detect movements for security purposes and smart sheets that monitor body movements and physiological activities during sleep. The findings highlight the potential of this engineering paper to serve as an eco-friendly alternative to engineering plastics in TENGs and electrodes, opening new avenues for future applications.

Calculated determination of spark discharge parameters in capacitive ignition systems of gas turbine engines based on diagnosing voltages on storage capacitors

The calculation results of the spark discharges probabilistic parameters in semiconductor spark plugs of capacitive ignition systems are presented: the energy and duration of discharges, discharge current and the criterion for the ignition ability of ignition systems based on measurements of two diagnostic quantities when it is impossible to directly measure these parameters under the conditions of gas turbine engines and full-scale test benches. Two voltages on the storage capacitor of ignition systems, measured by easily accessible means, are taken as diagnostic parameters – the voltage during the transition of the preparatory stage of the discharges to the spark stage and the voltage on the capacitor after the discharge in the semiconductor spark plug goes out. The laws of distribution of diagnostic quantities were experimentally determined, using methods of probability theory, expressions were obtained for the numerical characteristics of discharge parameters as a function of diagnostic quantities and characteristics of the elements of discharge circuits of ignition systems.

SPECTROSCOPY OF UNDERWATER DISCHARGE PLASMA WITH COPPER AND MOLYBDENUM VAPOUR ADMIXTURES

This work is devoted to the investigation of plasma parameters (excitation temperature and electron density) of the underwater discharge between two types of metal granules, in particular: between single-component granules of copper or molybdenum, copperized molybdenum, and both copper and molybdenum with a volume ratio of 50%. Optical emission spectroscopy was used to study such plasma of underwater spark discharges between different types of granules. Namely, the excitation temperature was determined by the Boltzmann plot technique, and the electron density was obtained from the width of the spectral lines of hydrogen and individual lines of metal atoms, assuming that the Stark effect is the dominant mechanism of roadening.

Reduced-Graphene-Oxide-Based Thin Films: An Alternative Coating for Harsh Space Environments.

Polymeric materials are commonly used as the outermost layer in spacecraft passive thermal control. However, in geostationary earth orbit environments, the polymeric layer is susceptible to environmental hazards, particularly electrostatic charges. In this study, we develop a graphene-based coating on a polymeric polyimide (Kapton®) and discuss its suitability in simulated harsh space environments for electrostatic dissipation. An about 80-100 nm thick conducting reduced graphene oxide (rGO) coating was developed on Kapton® by a simple and cost-effective spray technique while ensuring minimal variation in the thermo-optical properties and hence the equilibrium temperature. The spaceworthiness and stability of the coating were evaluated through simulated space environment tests, including thermal cycling, thermal vacuum, relative humidity, adhesion, and aging tests. Structural, optical, and electrical properties were found to be preserved after spaceworthiness tests, demonstrating the durability of the coating in harsh space environments. Furthermore, field emission scanning electron microscopy demonstrated significant electron charging on uncoated Kapton®, with a gradual reduction in charge buildup for GO-coated Kapton®, and almost negligible charging on rGO-coated Kapton® when subjected to electron bombardment at 10, 15, and 20 kV. Kelvin probe force microscopy further confirmed the enhanced electrostatic dissipative properties, showing a notable decrease in surface potential from 300 mV for uncoated Kapton® to 60 mV for rGO-coated Kapton®. These findings suggest that the developed graphene-based coating holds promise as a space-survivable solution for electrostatic dissipation in a spacecraft.

Electrostatic discharge protection of low-voltage circuits by forward characteristics of wide bandgap semiconductor Schottky barrier diodes

Abstract As a component protecting low-voltage (1–3 V) circuits against disturbance pulses such as electro-static discharge, we propose the application of the forward characteristics of wide bandgap semiconductor Schottky barrier diodes (SBDs). This concept was verified with β-Ga2O3-SBDs, which successfully kept the line voltage to 2.2–4.2 V for an input pulse voltage of 5–70 V with a rise time of less than 1 ns. This indicates that it is applicable for protection against nanosecond-level disturbance pulses.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae inactivation during water disinfection by underwater plasma bubbles: Preferential reactive species production and subcellular mechanisms.

The escalating challenges posed by water resource contamination, especially exacerbated by health concerns associated with microbial fungi threats, necessitate advanced disinfection technologies. Within this context, non-thermal plasma generated within bubble column reactors emerges as a promising antifungal strategy. The effects of direct plasma bubbles within different discharge modes and thus-produced plasma activated water (PAW) on the inactivation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae are investigated. Results show that plasma bubbles generated by dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) mode can effectively inactivate yeast cells (∼4.44 logs reduction) within 1 min, outperforming the spark discharge (SD). In this case, SD can cause a significant portion of cell necrosis, possibly due to the high electric field at the bubble interface. In PAW, DBD and SD produce different dominant long-lived oxygen and nitrogen species, while the crucial short-lived species in yeast apoptosis are both attributed to the singlet oxygen (1O2) as confirmed by scavenger tests. The detection of intracellular reactive oxygen species and antioxidant enzymes further illustrates the role of PAW in triggering apoptosis. Overall, this study demonstrates the discharge mode-dependent modulation of reactive species chemistry in plasma-liquid interactions and provides new insights into the subcellular mechanism of plasma-enabled yeast inactivation for water resource decontamination.

Additive Manufacturing of Polylactic Acid for Electrostatic Discharge Materials Application

Abstract The aim of this research work is to fabricate Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) compliant material utilizing Fused Deposition Modelling. FDM technique was utilized to fabricate ESD-compliant material. Polylactic acid (PLA) was chosen as the main material and blended with the conductive filler Carbon Black (CB) N550. Various CB compositions, ranging from 3-10wt% of Carbon Black N550, were mixed with PLA through a dry blending process for 24 hours at 40 rpm. The resulting material mixture was subsequently extruded into filaments using the 3Devo filament maker. CAD design and Ultimaker Cura slicer were utilized to construct the final product design and printing was carried out using Creality CR-6 SE. ESD test results showed that filament composition consisting of 97wt% PLA and 3wt% Carbon Black N550 achieved the desired ESD characteristics within the specified range. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of this selected blend demonstrated enhanced tensile strength and aligning well with its morphological behavior.

Lightning-Driven Pyrite Oxidation Under Archean Atmosphere Conditions.

Oxidative weathering is a major source of bio-essential micronutrients on Earth today; however, this flux would have been muted on the early Earth or on Mars, where atmospheric O2(g) levels were very low. Here, we explore the hypothesis that nitrogen oxides generated by lightning in an anoxic atmosphere could have elevated pyrite oxidation levels under otherwise anoxic conditions. We performed spark discharge experiments in the presence of pyrite powder and three different gas mixtures, including 80% N2(g) with 20% CO2(g), 95% N2(g) with 5% CO2(g), and modern air. Experiments were run for 30 min, and we tracked the production of NO(g), dissolved nitrate and nitrite, pH, dissolved sulfate, and total dissolved iron. Our results reveal increasing production of nitrogen oxides with increasing CO2(g) and O2(g) levels, which is consistent with previous studies. Dissolved iron and sulfate also increase, indicating that the nitrogen oxides are able to oxidize pyrite abiotically. Extrapolating these data to global conditions suggests that this mechanism was probably insignificant on a global scale on the early Earth; however, in thunderstorm-prone areas, such as in the modern tropics where lightning rates may locally be over 10 times above the global average, lightning could have rivalled abiotic pyrite oxidation by Archean O2 levels. The lightning contribution would have been highest during time periods with elevated CO2(g), which makes it a potentially important contributor to local release of sulphur, iron, and bio-essential micronutrients on prebiotic land surfaces or on other planets with anoxic CO2-rich atmospheres.

Surface Charging Analysis of Ariel Spacecraft in L2-Relevant Space Plasma Environment and GEO Early Transfer Orbit

Ariel (Atmospheric Remote-sensing Infrared Exoplanet Large-survey) is the ESA Cosmic Vision M4 mission, selected in March 2018 and officially adopted in November 2020, whose launch is scheduled by 2029. It aims at characterizing the atmospheres of hundreds of exoplanets orbiting nearby stars by low-resolution primary and secondary transit spectroscopy. The Ariel spacecraft’s operational orbit is baselined as a large-amplitude, eclipse-free halo orbit around the second Lagrangian (L2) point, a virtual point located at about 1.5 million km from the Earth in the anti-Sun direction, as it offers the possibility of long uninterrupted observations in a fairly stable radiative and thermo-mechanical environment. A direct escape injection with a single passage through the Van Allen radiation belts is foreseen. During both the injection trajectory and the final orbit around L2, Ariel will be immersed in and interact with Sun radiation and the plasma environment. These interactions usually result in the accumulation of net electrostatic charge on the external surfaces of the spacecraft, leading to a potentially hazardous configuration for the nominal operation and survivability of the Ariel platform and its payload, as it may induce harmful electrostatic discharges (ESDs). This work presents the latest results collected from surface charging analyses conducted using the SPIS tool of the European SPINE community along the GEO insertion orbit segment and operational orbit.

THE ROLE OF UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES IN THE OCCURRENCE, PREVENTION AND ELIMINATION OF FIRES

The oil and gas industry remains a cornerstone of national economies, significantly contributing to GDP and the development of various industrial sectors. In Azerbaijan, the sector’s role has grown in recent years, generating substantial revenues from hydrocarbon sales. However, the industry faces evolving risks, particularly from fires and explosions, which have long been a major cause of accidents. In this context, fire risks at oil and gas facilities are classified based on fire and explosion hazards, with most facilities falling into high-risk categories. Technological violations, hot works, and static electricity discharges are among the most common causes of fires, but a growing threat is the unlawful interference of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), which can target vertical steel tanks (VSTs) and cause cascading fires. These incidents, often involving shrapnel from UAV-carried munitions, present a unique challenge to the industry, as most facilities lack adequate protection against such threats. The impact of these UAVs can result in varying levels of damage, from minor impairment to complete destruction of tanks and surrounding infrastructure. In response to these emerging threats, technical innovations such as the "steel dome" system and the "Serp-VS5" drone suppression system have been introduced to enhance protection against UAV strikes. Moreover, UAVs have also proven effective in firefighting operations, assisting in monitoring fire hotspots and assessing damage in real-time. Various types of firefighting drones, including high-capacity aerial systems and controlled burn drones, are increasingly being deployed to combat fires in hard-to-reach areas. UAVs equipped with advanced thermal imaging and gas detection systems further enhance situational awareness and safety. Additionally, UAVs play a crucial role in detecting and monitoring oil spills, which pose significant fire hazards. By integrating UAVs into fire safety protocols, oil and gas enterprises can improve their response capabilities and reduce the risk of catastrophic fires. The growing adoption of UAV technology in fire safety represents a significant advancement in the sector’s ability to safeguard personnel and infrastructure. Keywords: fire safety, unmanned aerial vehicles, fire prevention, risk assessment, firefighting drones, oil spill detection.

The impact of atmospheric ultrafine particulate matter on IgE-mediated type 1 hypersensitivity reaction

The effect of atmospheric ultrafine particulate matter (UPM) on respiratory allergic diseases has been investigated for decades; however, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying these effects remain poorly understood. In this study, we used a simulated UPM (sUPM) generated via the spark discharge method to refine black carbon, a core particle that closely mimics real-world UPM, including the size (i.e., size of agglomerates: 165 nm) and organic carbon/elemental carbon ratio (i.e., 2.62). When 25 μg/mouse of dispersed sUPM was instilled into the lungs of mice, it promoted the infiltration and degranulation response of pulmonary mast cells, and exposure to sUPM in an immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated passive anaphylaxis model intensified the degranulation response of peripheral mast cells. These effects of sUPM were demonstrated to amplify the downstream signaling mechanism of the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) mediated by IgE when tested using rat basophil leukemia (RBL)−2H3 and mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs) collected from the bone marrow of BALB/c mice. These results indicate that airborne UPM can exacerbate type 1 hypersensitivity reactions by enhancing the IgE-mediated signaling pathways within mast cells. Furthermore, this study provided mechanistic evidence on exacerbated allergic pulmonary diseases induced by UPM inhalation.

Determination of threshold values of parameters of electronic irradiation of glass leading to electrostatic discharges

Experimental data are presented on the minimum values of energies and flux densities of electrons, the impact of which on the cover glasses of solar batteries and reflecting elements of thermoradiators of artificial Earth satellites leads to electrostatic discharges. It has been established that the addition of protons to the composition of the particle flux acting on the studied samples can suppress the development of discharges. For a qualitative interpretation of the results obtained, a mathematical model is proposed.

(Invited) Discovery of Static Electricity Induced Luminescence (SEL) Sensing Material Toward Visualizing Invisible Static Electricity Distribution

Static electricity is an extremely familiar phenomenon. Most people have probably felt sparks (electrostatic discharge) when a charged object (e.g., a charged human finger) is brought close to a metal. In terms of safety measures, it is known as a source of ignition and explosion. In the semiconductor industry, electrostatic destruction and malfunction of miniaturized electronic elements, and more recently, in relation to fuel consumption and operability of lightweight electric mobility, it is attracting more and more attention. On the other hand, static electricity is still a mystery and elusive when looking at static electricity evaluation. Conventional electrostatic sensors are difficult to use to measure static electricity on objects with uneven surfaces, in moving objects, and in changing measurement environments. Above all, the lack of intuitive means to understand static electricity, such as seeing it with the eyes or taking pictures of it with a camera, has made it a difficult problem to solve. This is also the reason why there are so many industrial needs.In contrast, the authors, who had been studying mechanoluminescent (ML) ceramic materials, later realized that they were mistaken, but it did not seem unusual for functional materials to produce color change or luminescence if there is an inflow of electric charge. We systematically searched for known materials (fluorescence, EL, afterglow, stress luminescence, chemiluminescence, etc.) in which charge is involved in luminescence, and found that a certain type of SrAl2O4: Eu2+ ( ceramic particles) emits light in response to weak electricity such as ions and charged particles in the air, called static electricity The electrostatic luminescence (SEL) spectra of SrAl2O4:Eu2+ (ceramic particles) are the world's first findings of its function as a static electricity induced luminescence (SEL) material. The electrostatic luminescence spectrum has a peak at 510 nm, similar to photoluminescence, and is derived from Eu2+ (4f7-4f65d1 ). It was also found that the electrostatic luminescence is affected by the crystalline state, even if the chemical formula is the same.When a film of electrostatically luminescent SrAl2O4: Eu2+ prepared by solid-phase synthesis and dispersed in resin was irradiated with corona discharge from an electrostatic generator gun, green luminescence was observed and spread radially. When the surface potential distribution was measured after the observation, the charged area and the luminescent area coincided. Although the experiment was conducted in a dark place for reproducibility, the luminosity was so high that it was visible even with room lights on. It was also found that electrostatic sparks when a person's finger is brought close can be visualized even before the discharge (Figure).Currently, electrostatic luminescent ceramic materials of various types and luminescent colors have been developed, increasing the diversity of electrostatic luminescence. In this presentation, we will explain novel SEL material and the sensors toward visualizing invisible static electricity generation and distribution.１．K. Kikunaga and N. Terasaki: “Demonstration of Static Electricity Induced Luminescence”, Scientific Reports,12, 8524 (2022). Open access https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-12704-5 Figure 1

Machining performance, economic and environmental analyses and multi-criteria optimization of electric discharge machining for SS310 alloy

With the expansion of the manufacturing sector, it has become crucial to incorporate sustainable production methods in order to remain competitive in the market. This study focuses on addressing the needs of the manufacturing industry by conducting a sustainability analysis of electric discharge machining for SS310 alloy. The analysis explores the impact of various electrode materials, for instance, copper and brass, as well as different machining variables, including discharge current (I = 4–12 A), spark gap (SG = 6–12 mu), pulse duration (Pon = 15–45 μs), and duty cycle (DC = 75–85%) using Taguchi method. The objective is to optimize the machining performance measures, which includes material removal rate (MRR), surface roughness (Ra), electrode wear (EW), and energy consumption (EC). In addition, the economic analysis of the machining process takes into account factors such as energy cost, dielectric consumption cost, EW cost, labor cost, and machine depreciation cost for both types of electrodes. Furthermore, the study investigates the carbon emissions resulting from EC, dielectric consumption, and EW to assess the environmental impact of the machining process. Multi-criteria decision-making approach is employed to assess the sustainability of the machining process by taking into account several performance, cost and environmental factors simultaneously. From empirical analysis, it has been observed that the copper electrode outperformed the brass electrode in terms of MRR (2.67 mm3/min), Ra (3.36 µm), EW (0.272 g), and EC (145.08 kJ) due to its superior electrical and thermal characteristics. In the cost analysis, copper offered lower costs for EC (2.02 PKR) attributed to its higher electrical conductivity while higher costs in terms of EW (5.5 PKR) and dielectric consumption (5.2 PKR) than brass. However, the analysis of labor and machine depreciation costs revealed that the application of copper electrode results in lower costs (80.1 and 99.3 PKR, respectively) than the brass electrode primarily due to its shorter machining time. The analysis of the environmental impact showed that the utilization of a copper electrode leads to reduced carbon emissions of 9.8 g CO2 due to its lower EC during the machining process. However, the copper electrode results in higher emissions from EW (5.07 g CO2) and dielectric consumption (54.58 g CO2) compared to the brass electrode. Based on the multi-criteria decision-making using the composite desirability function approach, it is evident that the copper electrode exhibits superior performance in terms of MRR, Ra, and total machining cost. Conversely, the brass electrode demonstrates better performance in terms of overall carbon emissions.

Relationship between the B4C reinforcement content and the properties of MAO films on the B4C/Al matrix composites

Thermal control coating is necessary for the B4C/Al matrix composites (AMCs) used in nuclear power field. Micro-arc Oxidation (MAO) technology is a suitable method to prepare thermal control coating on B4C/AMCs, but the B4C reinforcements has a great influence on the MAO process. In this paper, the effects of the B4C content on the spark discharge, microstructure and properties of the MAO films were studied by a Dual-channel Oscilloscope, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). The results indicate that the spark discharge in the early stage of oxidation is inhibited with the increase of the B4C particles in AMCs, but the effect declines in the later stage. Also, the compactness and blackness of the MAO films reduce due to the negative effect of the B4C particles on the oxidation process, but the lowest emissivity of the MAO film is still higher than 0.85, which can still meet the general requirement for thermal control coatings in actual applications.

Non-destructive integration of spark-discharge produced gold nanoparticles onto laser-scribed graphene electrodes for advanced electrochemical sensing applications

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) decorated graphene materials are preferable materials in a wide range of electrochemical applications, however, the current methods for preparing them have several limitations. Herein, we have developed a green, solution-free, and non-destructive method for the in-situ generation of AuNPs on laser-scribed graphene electrodes (LSGEs), addressing the limitations of traditional preparation methods. This novel technique, contrasting with the conventional solution-based electrochemical deposition, utilizes spark discharge to modify LSGEs, demonstrating superior performance in sensors and biosensors applications. Through comprehensive characterizations (scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), Raman spectra, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM)), we observed significant distinctions in particle size, metal loading, stability, surface-to-volume ratio, and graphene quality between spark-discharge produced AuNPs (SP-AuNPs) and electrodeposition produced AuNPs (EC-AuNPs). The average particle sizes of the SP-AuNPs and EC-AuNPs are 10 nm and 38 nm, respectively. The SP-AuNPs modified LSGEs demonstrate exceptional electroanalytical performance in dopamine detection, with a broad detection range (0.6–90 µM) and low LOD (0.40 µM), further validated in human neuroblastoma cells SH-SY5Y. Our findings suggest that the spark discharge method represents a significant advancement in the synthesis of metal nanoparticle enhanced LSG electrodes, with broad implications for electrochemical sensing, biosensing, and biomedical applications.