Electronic Performance Monitoring Research Articles

Performance Monitoring, Subordinate's Felt Trust and Ambidextrous Behavior; Toward a Conceptual Research Framework.

The present research proposes an electronic performance monitoring framework based on ambidextrous leadership and social exchange theories in a dynamic environment. It reviews and integrates essential literature on electronic performance management (EPM), trust, and ambidextrous behavior. For this, authors have reviewed relevant literature on various themes and underpinned them for managing EPM. The study emphasizes individuals’ psychological foundations that demonstrate trust behavior and relationship with their leaders. Eventually, through an ambidextrous approach, managers gain steady performance and relationships with their subordinates through EPM. The study shows that ambidexterity benefits organizations; it enhances employees’ resources, resulting in enhanced performance that leads to the performance of an organization. The authors discuss the theoretical as well as practical implications of this study.

A meta‐analysis of the effects of electronic performance monitoring on work outcomes

AbstractElectronic performance monitoring (EPM), or the use of technological means to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to employee job performance, is a now‐ubiquitous work practice. We conducted a comprehensive meta‐analysis of the effects of EPM on workers (K = 94 independent samples, N = 23,461). Results provide no evidence that EPM improves worker performance. Moreover, findings indicate that the presence of EPM is associated with increased worker stress, regardless of the characteristics of monitoring. Findings also demonstrate that organizations that monitor more transparently and less invasively can expect more positive attitudes from workers. Overall, results highlight that even as advances in technology make possible a variety of ways to monitor workers, organizations must continue to consider the psychological component of work.

The Mediating Role of Electronic Performance Monitoring in the relationship between Personality Traits and Work Passion

This study aims to study the relationship between personality traits (conscientiousness and extraversion), electronic performance monitoring (EPM) and work passion. In addition, it investigates the mediating role of EPM between personality traits and work passion. Data was collected from 105 employees working in call centers throughout Pakistan. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), using SmartPLS 3.0, was performed to test the hypothesized model. The results showed that consciousness and extraversion have a positive impact on EPM and work passion. In addition, EPM acts significantly as a mediator between personality traits and work passion among call center employees. This is the first study that examines the mediating role of EPM in the relation between personality differences and work passion. The results of the study would help Asian human resources professionals effectively perform human resources functions, such as employee staffing, training, and performance management. Implications for managers and recommendations for future studies are proposed.

The (Electronic) Walls Between Us: How Electronic Monitoring Undermines Ethical Leadership

Ethical leaders are highly sought after for their notable ability to inspire beneficial, ethical behaviors among their subordinates. The consistency by which these effects have been demonstrated in the ethical leadership literature suggests they are robust to most conditions. Yet, we argue that a primary mechanism by which ethical leaders influence subordinates (i.e., trust) is disrupted by a company practice that has become nearly as ubiquitous as emphasizing ethicality in hiring: employee electronic performance monitoring. Specifically, drawing from the ability, benevolence, and integrity model of trust, we propose that employee monitoring undermines an ethical leader’s influence in the workplace because monitoring conveys messages that disrupt the formation of trust. We further propose that this moderating effect weakens the relationship between ethical leadership and key subordinate outcomes, including task performance, voice, and organizational citizenship behavior. We tested our moderated-mediation model with multi-wave data from an organizationally diverse field sample of supervisors and subordinates. The results provide support for our predictions. Accordingly, this research has important implications for the ethical leadership and monitoring literatures. Considering the widespread use of electronic monitoring systems, this research also provides critical insight for managers.

Measuring the Acceptability of Facial Recognition-Enabled Work Surveillance Cameras in the Public and Private Sector

Electronic performance monitoring is expanding rapidly in public and private sector environments amidst evidence that when privacy concerns are raised by employees in arbitration and judicial proceedings, there is limited empirical foundation for what constitutes a reasonable expectation of privacy among everyday citizens. This study replicates and expands on Rainie and Duggan’s U.S. study of the acceptability of facial recognition-enabled camera surveillance in the workplace with three separate Canadian survey sample populations. We find that private sector workers tolerate cameras in the workplace more than public sector workers and that the younger age cohort, for both private and public sector workers, is more likely to tolerate cameras in the workplace than the older cohort. Further, through analysis of qualitative comments among those ambivalent about camera surveillance at work, we find that concerns over transparency, safety and authoritarianism were the most frequent themes. These results point to the considerations employers must face for surveillance practices to be viewed as reasonable by employees in both public and private sectors.

An Empirical Assessment of the Intrusiveness and Reasonableness of Emerging Work Surveillance Technologies in the Public Sector

Public Administration ReviewVolume 81, Issue 4 p. 810-810 ERRATUMFree Access An Empirical Assessment of the Intrusiveness and Reasonableness of Emerging Work Surveillance Technologies in the Public Sector This article corrects the following: An Empirical Assessment of the Intrusiveness and Reasonableness of Emerging Work Surveillance Technologies in the Public Sector Étienne Charbonneau, Carey Doberstein, Volume 80Issue 5Public Administration Review pages: 780-791 First Published online: September 28, 2020 First published: 21 July 2021 https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13325AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat In Charbonneau and Doberstein (2020), the following corrections by the authors were not made before the publication of the Version of Record. The corrections have now been made; a list of each correction is included below. On page 780, the word ‘wait’ has been deleted and the text ‘of users waiting for public services’ has been inserted in the second sentence of the first paragraph (left column). On page 781, the text ‘than as customers’ has been inserted at the end of the second sentence of the second full paragraph (left column). And the text ‘types of’ should be inserted and the text ‘dimensions of’ should be changed to ‘in’ at the last sentence of the third full paragraph (right column). On page 782, the reference citation ‘(Ankabi 2017)’ in the last sentence of the 2nd paragraph under subsection ‘Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM) in Workplaces’ should be corrected to ‘(Akanbi 2017)’. On page 784, the text ‘Closed-circuit televisions’ have been inserted before ‘(CCTVs)’ at the first sentence of the second paragraph under ‘Surveillance Technologies in the Workplace’ subsection. And the second sentence ‘The dimension we focus on is surveillance for two vivid examples of public servants with (typically) higher and lower appreciation among the public, a social worker ((Fukuyama 2013 and a government tax agent (Tummers et al. 2015).’ under the subsection Study Design should be corrected. On page 785, the text ‘original’ and ‘of surveyed Americans’ should be inserted before and after the word ‘results’ at the first sentence of the paragraph after Table 1. On page 789, the word ‘it’ before and after the word ‘allows’ in the third sentence of the first paragraph under Conclusion section should be corrected to ‘technology’ and ‘surveillance’ respectively. And the text ‘do it’ in the fourth sentence of the same section should be changed ‘surveil workers’. In the References section, the following references should have been added: Akanbi, Opeyemi. 2017. New Media, Work Boundaries, and Privacy. International Journal of Communication 11: 4769–4782. Blasina, Robert B. 2007. Video Surveillance and the Employment Relationship. The Advocate 65(4): 447–478. Ciocchetti, Corey A. 2011. The Eavesdropping Employer: A Twenty-First Century Framework for Employee Monitoring. American Business Law Journal 48(2): 285–369. These have been corrected in the online version. Reference Charbonneau, Étienne, and Carey Doberstein. 2020. An Empirical Assessment of the Intrusiveness and Reasonableness of Emerging Work Surveillance Technologies in the Public Sector. Public Administration Review 80(5): 780– 791. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13278Wiley Online LibraryWeb of Science®Google Scholar Volume81, Issue4July/August 2021Pages 810-810 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Electronic Performance Monitoring in the Digital Workplace: Conceptualization, Review of Effects and Moderators, and Future Research Opportunities.

The rise of digital and interconnected technology within the workplace, including programs that facilitate monitoring and surveillance of employees is unstoppable. The COVID-19-induced lockdowns and the resulting increase in home office adoption even increased this trend. Apart from major benefits that may come along with such information and communication technologies (e.g., productivity increases, better resource planning, and increased worker safety), they also enable comprehensive Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM) which may also have negative effects (e.g., increased stress and a reduction in job satisfaction). This conceptual article investigates EPM to better understand the development, adoption, and impact of EPM systems in organizations. The EPM literature published since the 1980s constitutes the basis for this conceptual article. We present a framework which is intended to serve as foundation for future studies. Moreover, we reviewed more than three decades of empirical EPM research and identified six major outcomes that are influenced by the use of an EPM system, as well as a large number of moderator variables. Based on our conceptual analyses and the resulting insights, which also include privacy, ethical, and cultural considerations, we discuss future research opportunities where we also refer to design implications for EPM systems.

Empowering employees: the other side of electronic performance monitoring

Purpose Advances in electronic performance monitoring (EPM) have raised employees’ concerns regarding the invasion of privacy and erosion of trust. On the other hand, EPM promises to improve performance and processes. This paper aims to focus on how the alignment of EPM design and organizational culture through effective organizational mechanisms can address privacy concerns, and, hence, positively affect employees’ perception toward technology. Design/methodology/approach Based on a theoretical lens extending two conceptual frameworks, a qualitative approach was used to analyze interview data collected from a comparative case study of two organizations in the USA and Qatar within the oil and gas sector. These two contexts were selected to emphasize the cross-cultural and organizational differences in employees’ acceptance of EPM. Findings The study revealed that national and corporate cultures affected employees’ perception and acceptance of monitoring in both countries. Because of diversity, though EPM was better accepted in Qatar, as they are an easy way to enforce standardization and to push employees to adapt to a dominating corporate culture. Conversely, in the USA where culture is more innovation-oriented, organizational mechanisms shifted the perceptions of EPM to being mean to obtain feedback rather than to impose standards. Research limitations/implications This qualitative study is based on a descriptive comparative case study of two organizations with two cultural contexts. The limited sample size and cross-sectional nature of data may need to be extended to a larger cultural scope that is observed over a longer period to safely generalize the findings. Practical implications Decision-makers in multinational corporations with different cultural backgrounds may benefit of this study’s outcomes, as it emphasizes the importance of the fit between EPM designs and the cultural settings. Furthermore, organizations aiming to conduct analytics on EPM data have to justify and prove its benefits to employees to facilitate acceptance. Social implications The study shows that employees in Qatar have a different cultural frame of reference in their perception of fairness and ethics than their counterparts in the USA because of changes in the meaning of social relations, personal goals and behavioral norms. Originality/value The originality of this study lays in its empirical validation of a composite framework examining both national and corporate cultures on employees’ reactions to EPM systems. It also proves the critical importance of organizational mechanisms to align the EPM design with the organization cultural settings.

Challenges of upgrading craft workforce into Construction 4.0: framework and agreements

Craft workforce is the main productive factor in traditional construction. Construction 4.0 visions are based on automation and digitalisation, meaning that human site activities will require/stipulate changes. The extent to which manual tasks done by humans in construction will be replaced is uncertain. This might vary considering the context or type of work. Construction 4.0 includes craft workforce activities, as these can benefit from technology, fostering digital transformation in the short/medium term. The research scope is workforce–innovation–management using data from job sites. A framework is developed based on data future use involving electronic performance monitoring, building information modelling, smart contracts and artificial intelligence. A systematic scoping review is developed to identify legal/ethical issues in connection to technological aspects. The discussion and findings focus on General Data Protection Regulation compliance to apply the proposed framework. Optimised human–machine-controlled environments must be ethically managed by pre-established collective agreements and must rely on each worker’s awareness and consent. The findings suggest that the human aspects if improperly addressed could result in a bottleneck of digital transformation advances. Along with the framework, the paper provides a step-by-step, streamlined review of the regulations and requirements that need to be considered when implementing electronic monitoring of workers.

EPM 20/20: A Review, Framework, and Research Agenda for Electronic Performance Monitoring

Electronic performance monitoring (EPM) refers to the use of technological means to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to job performance. The last comprehensive review of the EPM literature was published in 2000. Since 2000, dramatic advances in information technologies have created an environment in which organizations are able to monitor employees to a greater extent and with greater intensity than was previously possible. Moreover, since that time, considerable research has been devoted to understanding the effects of EPM on individual performance and attitudes. Contradictory findings in the EPM literature exist, suggesting that EPM is a multidimensional phenomenon and one for which contextual and psychological variables are pertinent. Thus, we propose a theory-based typology of EPM characteristics and use this typology as a framework to review the EPM literature and identify an agenda for future research and practice.

Evaluative social presence can improve vigilance performance, but vigilance is still hard work and is stressful.

Vigilance is the ability to sustain attention over a period of time. Previous research has indicated that vigilance tasks are hard work and are stressful for human operators. Performance tends to decline with time on task, and workload and stress typically increase during the course of the vigil. Methods that could be used to overcome the adverse effects of vigilance (i.e., stress, workload, poor performance) includes social facilitation factors, such as performing the task while under observation. Thus, the present experiments examined the effects of multiple forms of social facilitation on vigilance, as well as the stress and workload associated with performing the task. Over 2 experiments, 284 participants completed a 24-min cognitive vigilance task. The results indicated that evaluative-based forms of social presence (i.e., direct monitoring, electronic performance monitoring) were associated with improved detection performance. The mere social presence of a monitor did not significantly influence vigilance performance. The results also demonstrated that social facilitation (in any form) did not impose additional stress or workload on the observers. These novel results have both important practical and theoretical implications for both vigilance performance and social facilitation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Electronic Performance Monitoring and sustained attention: Social facilitation for modern applications

Electronic Performance Monitoring, or EPM, has been described as the use of electronic systems to monitor and evaluate performance. Research on the effects of EPM has indicated that electronic monitoring may improve employee productivity and performance. However, most of the prior research has utilized computer-based electronic presence to examine the effects of EPM on short-duration, clerical-based tasks. Relatively little is known about how EPM can affect longer-duration sustained attention tasks, like vigilance. The present study was comprised of two experiments that sought to examine the effects of EPM on sustained attention and to provide further evidence that video-based monitoring can be an effective form of EPM. A total of 197 participants (106 in experiment one and 91 in experiment two) completed a 24-minute cognitive-based vigilance task. The results indicated that not only could EPM improve sustained attention, but also that video-based electronic presence was an effective implementation of EPM. However, the results also indicated that the most robust performance effects were associated with employing two forms of video-based electronic presence simultaneously rather than individually. Theoretical implications and practical applications are further discussed.

Study protocol: a cluster-randomized trial implementing Sustained Patient-centered Alcohol-related Care (SPARC trial)

BackgroundExperts recommend that alcohol-related care be integrated into primary care (PC) to improve prevention and treatment of unhealthy alcohol use. However, few healthcare systems offer such integrated care. To address this gap, implementation researchers and clinical leaders at Kaiser Permanente Washington (KPWA) partnered to design a high-quality program of evidence-based care for unhealthy alcohol use: the Sustained Patient-centered Alcohol-related Care (SPARC) program. SPARC implements systems of clinical care designed to increase both prevention and treatment of unhealthy alcohol use. This clinical care for unhealthy alcohol use was implemented using three strategies: electronic health record (EHR) decision support, performance monitoring and feedback, and front-line support from external practice coaches with expertise in alcohol-related care (“SPARC implementation intervention” hereafter).The purpose of this report is to describe the protocol of the SPARC trial, a pragmatic, cluster-randomized, stepped-wedge implementation trial to evaluate whether the SPARC implementation intervention increased alcohol screening and brief alcohol counseling (so-called brief interventions), and diagnosis and treatment of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) in 22 KPWA PC clinics.Methods/DesignThe SPARC trial sample includes all adult patients who had a visit to any of the 22 primary care sites in the trial during the study period (January 1, 2015–July 31, 2018). The 22 sites were randomized to implement the SPARC program on different dates (in seven waves, approximately every 4 months). Primary outcomes are the proportion of patients with PC visits who (1) screen positive for unhealthy alcohol use and have documented brief interventions and (2) have a newly recognized AUD and subsequently initiate and engage in alcohol-related care. Main analyses compare the rates of these primary outcomes in the pre- and post-implementation periods, following recommended approaches for analyzing stepped-wedge trials. Qualitative analyses assess barriers and facilitators to implementation and required adaptations of implementation strategies.DiscussionThe SPARC trial is the first study to our knowledge to use an experimental design to test whether practice coaches with expertise in alcohol-related care, along with EHR clinical decision support and performance monitoring and feedback to sites, increase both preventive care—alcohol screening and brief intervention—as well as diagnosis and treatment of AUDs.Trial registrationThe trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.Gov: NCT02675777. Registered February 5, 2016, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02675777.

Police Body-Worn Cameras: Effects on Officers’ Burnout and Perceived Organizational Support

Police departments in the United States are rapidly adopting body-worn cameras (BWCs). To date, no study has investigated the effects of BWCs on police officers themselves, despite evidence suggesting negative effects of electronic performance monitoring on employee well-being. Police officers already experience higher levels of burnout than other professions. We hypothesize that the intense surveillance of BWCs will manifest in how police officers perceive the organizational support of their departments and will increase burnout. We test these hypotheses using data from patrol officers ( n = 271) and structural equation modeling. We find BWCs increase police officer burnout, and this effect is statistically different from zero. We also find that BWCs decrease officers’ perceived organizational support, which mediates the relationship between BWCs and burnout. Greater perceived organizational support can blunt the negative effects of BWCs. Our study is the first to situate effects on officers at the center of BWC literature.

Evidence-based recommendations for employee performance monitoring

From security cameras to GPS tracking systems, nearly 80% of organizations use some type of electronic performance monitoring (EPM). EPM uses technology to gather, store, analyze, and report employee behavior (e.g., productivity, use of company time, incivility). The objective, real-time data that EPM systems collect can be used for performance appraisal, training and development, logistical tracking, wellness programs, employee safety, and more. Despite the organizational benefits of EPM, these systems can have adverse effects on employee satisfaction, organizational commitment, fairness perceptions, and employee behavior. Research provides evidence, however, that these downfalls can be mitigated by implementing these systems with employee attitudes and privacy perceptions in mind. Using theory and empirical research evidence, we offer five recommendations for maximizing the positive effects and minimizing the negative effects of EPM: (1) Be transparent with employees about EPM use, (2) be aware of all potential employee reactions to being monitored, (3) use EPM for learning and development rather than deterrence, (4) restrict EPM to only work-related behaviors, and (5) consider organizational makeup when implementing an EPM system.

Big Data, Little Individual: Considering the Human Side of Big Data

Guzzo, Fink, King, Tonidandel, and Landis (2015) provide a clear overview of the implications of conducting research using big data. One element we believe was overlooked, however, was an individual-level perspective on big data; that is, what impact does this sort of data collection have on the individuals being studied? As psychologists, the ethics and impact of big data collection from workers should be at the forefront of our minds. In this reply, we use years of research on electronic monitoring and tracking to provide evidence that an individual-level perspective is an essential part of the discussion surrounding industrial–organizational psychology and big data. Specifically, we examine electronic performance monitoring (EPM) literature to identify how the widespread, pervasive collection of employee data affects employees’ attitudes and behaviors.

Monitoring Employee Behavior Through the Use of Technology and Issues of Employee Privacy in America

Despite the historic American love for privacy that has enhanced innovation and creativity throughout the country, encroachments on privacy restrain individual freedom. Noticeable, advances in technology have offered decision makers remarkable monitoring aptitudes that can be used in numerous tasks for multiple reasons. This has led scholars and practitioners to pose a significant number of questions about what is legitimate and illegitimate in the day-to-day affairs of a business. This article is composed of (a) research about electronic monitoring and privacy concerns; (b) definitions of, critiques of, and alternatives to electronic performance monitoring (EPM); (c) motives behind employee monitoring and leadership behaviors; (d) advice that makes monitoring less distressful; (e) employee monitoring policies; (f) reviewing policies and procedures; (g) the role of human resource development (HRD) in employee assessment and development; and (h) conclusion and recommendations for further studies.

Monitoring what and how: psychological implications of electronic performance monitoring

Implementing electronic performance monitoring in the workplace might improve the efficiency and quality of employee data that are collected. These intended benefits might be discounted or even eliminated if employees have a negative reaction to the monitoring process. The goal of this exploratory study was therefore to investigate which electronic performance monitoring techniques and monitoring characteristics are associated with negative employee reactions using survey responses from 190 student workers. Results showed that close performance monitoring (via cameras, data entry, chat and phone recording) had significant negative effects on job attitudes such as job satisfaction and affective commitment. Similar effects were observed for employee self‐efficacy and perceived control. Attitudes were furthermore negatively impacted when the monitoring was focused on individuals and unpredictable, which also reduced organisational citizenship behaviour while continuous monitoring reduced self‐efficacy. These findings suggest that the benefits of close monitoring may be overshadowed by negative employee reactions.

‘Decommissioned vessels’ — performance management and older workers in technologically-intensive service work

Abstract Despite increasing policy emphasis on developing and retaining an aging workforce, this paper demonstrates employer use of electronic performance monitoring (EPM) as part of performance management which can adversely affect older workers. We focus specifically on the use of EPM which is used to identify a proportion of the workforce as ‘underperformers,’ often referred to as forced distribution rating systems. Evidence is presented from union informants representing employees in two technologically-intensive service sectors: the financial sector and telecommunications. These sectors were among the first to utilize technology in a way which had transformative implications for work processes and people management in white-collar service work. In both sectors and across clerical and engineering work contexts, the data show the use of EPM by managers to guide punitive performance management for sickness absence and perceived reduced capability. Older workers emerge as a vulnerable group, with manager decisions shown to be based on age stereotypes. We argue that increasingly pervasive use of digitized performance monitoring may intensify age discrimination in performance management.

The Invisible Eye? Electronic Performance Monitoring and Employee Job Performance

To enhance employee performance, many organizations are increasingly using electronic performance monitoring (EPM). The relationship between the frequency of EPM use and employee performance is examined in 2 field studies. In Study 1, which uses a unique longitudinal data set, results reveal that shorter time lags between 2 consecutive employee performance assessments are related to better task performance as indicated by call quality metrics. A second field study using matched supervisor–employee and EPM system data is conducted in 2 call centers to extend these results and to focus more directly on the supervisors’ use of EPM and its relationship with additional performance criteria: counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs) and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). Results indicate that more frequent supervisory use of EPM is associated with better task performance and OCB. However, supervisory use of EPM was not significantly related to CWB.