Electrical And Electronic Equipment Research Articles

Understanding preferences for EEE collection services: A choice-based conjoint analysis

Changing our economic system into a Circular Economy can reduce our dependence on primary materials. Circular Economy requires used products to be collected and supplied through reverse distribution channels. Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) is a problematic and under-collected stream. The aim of the present paper is to understand the preference of consumers for EEE collection services. Focusing on mobile phones, coffee machines and washing machines as examples, we assessed the stated preferences of Brussels’ consumers using a Choice-Based Conjoint analysis. The results obtained underline the price-driven nature of consumers’ preferences. Consumers also have a high reluctance for incineration but no significant preference for reusing over recycling, and even a preference for recycling in the case of mobile phones. These results also highlight the large differences among product types, especially for the type of service: consumers have a high willingness to pay for home collection of washing machines but have no preference for mobile phones. Income, household structure, professional occupation and availability of a storage room impact the preferences for several collection services’ attributes. These impacts are small and do not concern preferences for recovery processes, identity of the collector, price of collection services and appointment requirements. The results of this study call for a redesign of EEE classifications and for a refinement of collection services to incorporate consumers’ preferences.

A Study on Socio Economic Implications of E Waste Management

In the 21st Century, the information and communication revolution has brought remarkable changes in the way we organize our lives. The development in communication and technology in India has a great impact on our economy, industries and life style of people. Initially, we dealt with record players, radios, VCRs and black-and-white televisions; followed by CD and DVD. Air conditioners, air coolers, cellular phones, refrigerators, computers, laptops, power bank and many other gadgets arrived in the Indian market and in the hands of common man. Electronics have become part of the throw away culture of developed countries. This is not an exception even in the developing countries. Electronic gadgets are meant to make our lives comfortable, happier and simpler, but they contain poisonous toxic substances, their disposal and recycling becomes a health nightmare. These have led to various problems including the problem of huge amount of hazardous waste and other wastes generated from electric products. Over the past two decades, the global market of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) continues to grow exponentially, while the life span of those products becomes shorter and shorter. Due to Rapid economic growth, urbanization and industrialization, demand for consumer goods, has been increased for both the consumption and the production of EEE. Any improperly disposed electronics can be classified as E-waste. E-waste basically comprises electronic goods that are not fit for their original use.

Just How Much Do We Know About Electronic Waste: Empirical Evidence from Nairobi, Kenya

This study aimed to find out if consumers of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) in Nairobi, Kenya know about e-waste and its harmful effects, the available disposable mechanisms in the country and the legal framework for managing EEE. It also explored if consumers would desire to have information on e-waste and participate or be involved in its management. Primary data was collected from 98 residents of Nairobi via the online platform - SurveyMonkey tool, because the study was done during the corona virus disease (COVID-19) pandemic spread and the country was enforcing social distancing measures by the World Health Organization. Data was descriptively analyzed. Results show that majority (84.2%) of the respondents understand what electronic waste is, 68.4% of the respondents know that e-waste has hazardous substances in them. 71% of respondents in the study however, indicated that they do not segregate it at source during disposal as is required by the e-waste guidelines. In the study, 73.7% of the respondents had no idea there existed any government efforts to guide or regulate its management. Most importantly, the city dwellers are willing to be involved in its management. This study, therefore, recommended that the government, through its regulatory bodies in environment, ICT and other relevant EEE regulators, to develop voluntary and mandatory legal, policies, guidelines and regulatory frameworks for managing EEE. The Government has to create proper disposal mechanisms, communicate effectively the challenges posed by inferior disposal methods and continuously engage the citizens in e-waste management activities. Proper disposal and its eventual management can be part of consumer’s daily activity.

Prerequisite factors for original equipment manufacturer remanufacturing

Natural resources are being depleted at an alarming rate, also resulting in increased emissions and pollution. The call for a circular economy and sustainable strategies is now louder than ever. Remanufacturing can alleviate our environmental impact while still providing opportunities for profitable business. However, there is a need for a framework detailing the necessary steps for a successful remanufacturing start-up. This paper aims to identify the essential and supportive factors an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) must consider when transitioning part of its business to remanufacturing. Such factors could aid both current actors in the industrial setting as well as make way for further investigations and more advanced frameworks from the scientific field. The task is carried out through a novel combination of prior research on production development and remanufacturing, with support from a case study performed at an electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) manufacturer. This paper concludes that the first essential factors to be addressed when switching orientation towards remanufacturing can be contained in four categories: core acquisition and reverse logistics, labor skill and availability, remanufacturing facilities, and remanufacturing process and technology. Secondary supporting factors include design for remanufacturing and information feedback, remanufacturing process improvements, remanufacturing market knowledge, and organization, planning and control.

Assessing the Regulatory Requirements of Lead-Based Perovskite Photovoltaics

Nicole Moody, Samuel Sesena, Dane W. deQuilettes, Benjia Dak Dou, Richard Swartwout, Anna Johnson, Udochukwu Eze, Roberto Brenes, Matthew Johnston, Vladimir Bulovic, and Moungi G. Bawendi are members of Tata-MIT GridEdge Solar, an interdisciplinary research program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology working toward scalable design and manufacturing of lightweight, flexible solar cells. Joseph T. Buchman and Christy L. Haynes are part of the Center for Sustainable Nanotechnology, a multi-institutional partnership aimed at understanding the fundamental chemical and physical processes that govern the transformations and interactions of nanoparticles in the environment.

Evaluation of a new extended producer responsibility mode for WEEE based on a supply chain scheme

China is promoting extended producer responsibility (EPR) for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). However, the present EPR policy in China, in fund mode, has been facing the challenge of fund deficit severely since 2016. A new sustainable EPR mode is needed to solve this problem. In this paper, a mandatory recycling EPR mode is designed and studied as a potential solution. A quantitative evaluation system is innovatively established to evaluate the effectiveness of the mode and to compare the new mode to the present mode. The evaluation system first summarizes a supply chain scheme of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) in each mode, which describes the life cycle of China's EEE from products to wastes to renewed resources. The supply chain schemes are complex since they contain five to six different stakeholders. Then classical game theory models are applied to the supply chain scheme based on the interaction among different stakeholders to calculate the indicators used for evaluation. At last, the two modes are compared in terms of economic, environmental and social effects in the case of the air-conditioner market. Results show the mandatory recycling mode is similar to the fund mode in economic and social effects. It is more financially sustainable, capable of enabling a higher recycling rate and more beneficial to certified recycling companies. Therefore, applying the recycling obligation mode in the future to maintain the EPR system is recommended.

Toxicity evaluation of E-waste plastics and potential repercussions for human health

At present, waste mobile phone is considered to be one of the fastest-growing obsolete items in the stream of electronic waste (e-waste). Toxic substances such as heavy metals and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) have been widely added to plastics used in electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). The recent technological revolution in electronic appliances combined with high and growing consumption has caused a huge generation of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Therefore, e-waste plastics are considered to be one of the fastest-growing waste streams globally. In this study, we examined the hazardous substances in the plastic components of waste mobile phones and then applied the USEtox life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) model to determine the impacts on human health. Specifically, various plastic parts separated from waste mobile phones (n = 20) were collected and then, we used standard tests to characterize the heavy metals and brominated flame retardants. The mean and range of the results are 2207.7 μg/kg (503.9–11569.9 μg/kg) for Pb, 91.6 μg/kg (8.8–464.4 μg/kg) for Cd, 13.7 μg/kg (1.6–58.9 μg/kg) for Be, 7203.3 μg/kg (117–69813 μg/kg) for Sb, 471.3 μg/kg (143.4–2351.3 μg/kg) for As, 1.5 mg/kg (2.1–12.5 mg/kg) for Hg and 523.7 mg/kg (27.1–3859 mg/kg) for Cr. The BFRs - a sum Polybrominated Biphenyls, Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Hexabromocyclododecane - were not detected except for two samples, which was an average of 234.5 μg/kg for nona-BDE and deca-BDE. The total bromine (Br) concentration varied from 0 to 471 mg/kg (average value of 87.9 mg/kg) , while Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBP-A) showed an average concentration of 214.3 μg/kg. In the case of potential human health risks, Hg contributed the major risk for carcinogens and non-cancer disease in the plastics, but the contribution of Pb was also significant. In the case of eco-toxicity, Cr posed the most significant risks in the plastics. Overall, the results show that the toxic substances are below the limit values of substances regulated in the RoHS Directive in China and Europe. However, the results of LCIA highlight the growing importance to avoid the open burning practices of e-waste plastics that contain Hg, Pb, Cr ad Sb. Additionally, the results set a new database for the e-waste plastics recycling industry and provide information for ecodesign in EEE production.

Recycling the domestic copper scrap to address the China’s copper sustainability

The Chinese economy is in a critical period of continuous transformation of new and old kinetic energy and economic transformation and upgrading. Copper, the second largest strategic raw material, is still central to China’s economic development. As the major producer and consumer of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), China’s production and consumption of refined copper is the largest in the world. Thus, it is necessary to forecast the supply and demand of China’s future copper. There is a huge gap between copper production and consumption in China, the current identified copper resources cannot meet copper consumption in the next five years, thus the import of copper will be more crucial for China’s future copper industry. Due to trade frictions, restriction on imports and other reasons, the import of copper from other countries will exist a lot of uncertainties. Hence, the domestic copper waste and scraps could be the suitable secondary resource for recycling copper in China. According to the grade and value of copper scraps, establishing quality standards and optimizing the disassembly process of the domestic Cu-bearing waste & scraps, and using the suitable method are the key to recycling the domestic copper scraps.

Electronic-waste and awareness towards its disposal: A study in Dibrugarh district of Assam

E-waste is a term used to cover all items of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and its parts that have been discarded by its owner as waste without the intent of re-use. The purpose of this research article is to study user’s awareness towards the proper disposal and management of E-waste in Dibrugarh District. The study is based on primary data collected through a structured questionnaire and can be useful in future policy formulation for e-waste management and in spreading awareness among the people about e-waste. The findings show that the level of awareness about e-waste and its management of the majority of the respondents are low. Moreover, it is also found that as many as around 28 per cents of respondents were completely unaware of e-waste issues. As far as the post-consumption behaviour is concerned, only 1 per cent of the total respondents agreed that they took the unused products to the local recycling centre while around 25 per cent of the respondents threw the old unused products in trash or garbage. The study thus suggests proper public education and sensitization on the hazardous effects of retaining e-wastes as well as marking of some e-waste drop off or collection points across the city would enhance an effective and efficient collection of obsolete electronic products.

E-waste management in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic literature review

The developing world has become the primary destination for used electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) exported by the developed world, making e-waste management critical. This paper aims to de...

LCA and Ecodesign Framework and Applications in the Electronics Sector

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is an indispensable tool in estimating the environmental impact of products and services. Generating estimates according to international standards is a crucial precondition towards optimizing the environmental performance of products and services. In Europe, the Ecodesign Directive (2009/125/EC) provides a method on how to determine impacts associated with energy-using and energy-related products, including electric and electronic equipment (EEE). One the one hand, efforts are being made to further harmonize LCA methods to allow for comparative assertions between different products and to eventually integrate LCA results into further parts of the European environmental legislation. On the other hand, LCA studies of electronics components, products, and product-service-systems can be very complex, reflecting the global supply chains, advanced production methods, and fast technological developments in the field of EEE. This paper provides and overview of both the LCA and Ecodesign framework, current developments in the field, and illustrates the intricacies of LCA studies in the field of EEE with a focus on consumer ICT and IT devices.

Import of Electronic Waste into Nigeria: the Imperative of a Regulatory Policy Shift

Abstract This article explores the regulation of transboundary movement of e-waste into Nigeria. The country has had an unsavoury history with the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes, and this has likely influenced its strict legislative response to such imports, including the decision to ban the transboundary movement of e-waste. However, the effectiveness of the ban is doubtful, as the importation of non-functional electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) or near-end-of-life EEE (which is classified as e-waste in Nigeria), is still thriving. The failure of the ban in curbing the transboundary movement of e-waste into Nigeria obliges policy makers to come up with new and innovative means to address this issue. It posits that the ban does not show an appreciation of the socio-economic realities and the generally weak regulatory climate in the country. The article thus argues for a shift in policy from outright ban of e-waste imports into Nigeria to more effective regulation and sustainable management.

Domestic flow of e-waste in São Paulo, Brazil: Characterization to support public policies

Understanding the domestic flow of e-waste is essential for efficient waste management in urban contexts. However, diagnosis of domestic e-waste flow is complex due to its diffuse generation and dependence on consumer behavior. Here, we characterized domestic e-waste flow in São Paulo, Brazil (a megacity with roughly 11 million inhabitants in 3.5 million households), describing the stages of product acquisition, out-of-use storage, and end-of-life destination, via a population-based cross-sectional study using a statistically representative sample. We conducted household interviews using a structured questionnaire, with questions on characteristics, quantities, and behaviors of acquisition, replacement, storage, repair, and destination for 26 electric and electronic equipment (EEE) categories. Each household had on average 21 EEE (95% confidence interval [CI]: 19.7–21.7), of which 18 were in use and 3 were out-of-use. Out-of-use storage was common, occurring in 72.6% of households. Discarded EEE (i.e., e-waste) was destined for intended reuse (59.5%; 95% CI: 57.4–61.5%), recycling (20.4%; 95% CI: 18.8–22.1%), and, particularly for small EEE, municipal waste (16.0%; 95% CI: 14.5–17.6%). Other aspects of domestic e-waste flow (e.g., place and time of acquisition, second-hand acquisition, donation, intention to repair damaged EEE, and storage) were quantified and related to actions for public policies. This research shows that household surveys are useful for obtaining primary data to verify consumer behavior toward EEE. We expect the findings of this study to support decision-making for public policies related to e-waste management, particularly in countries where reverse logistics systems are in the initial phase of implementation.

Assessment of tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA) content in plastic waste recovered from WEEE

Due to the variability of additives and polymer types used in electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), and in accordance with the European Directive 2012/19/EU, an implementation of sound management practices is necessary. This work focuses on assessing the content of tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA) in acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polypropylene (PP), polycarbonate (PC) and their polymer blends (i.e. PC/ABS). A total of 36 plastic housing samples originating from microwave ovens, electric irons, vacuum cleaners and DVD/CD players were subjected to microwave-assisted-extraction (MAE) and/or ultrasound-assisted-extraction (UAE). Maximum mean concentration values of TBBPA measured in DVD/CD players and vacuum cleaners ranged between 754−1146 μg/kg, and varied per polymer type, as follows: 510−2515 μg/kg in ABS and 55−3109 μg/kg in PP. The results indicated that MAE was more sufficient than UAE in the extraction of TBBPA from ABS. To optimize the UAE procedure, various solvents were tested. Higher amounts of TBBPA were obtained from ABS and PP using a binary mixture of a polar-non-polar solvent, isopropanol:n-hexane (1:1), whereas the sole use of isopropanol exhibited incomplete extraction.

Households’ Consumption of Electrical and Electronic Equipment and Environmental Implication in Ota, Nigeria

The generation of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has been attributed to unprecedented consumption of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) globally. Hence, the issue of consumption and management of the associated WEEE warrant investigation. This study seeks to provide insight into households’ consumption of EEE in Ota, Nigeria. Multistage sampling technique was used to purposely administer questionnaire on 111 households’ heads/representatives in random manner. Data collected were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings indicated that rate in EEE consumption pattern reflects the appliances’ importance to the households. Also, signicant proportion of the households (81.5%) consumed new EEE, implying new EEE is preferred to purchase of used EEE. Decision to acquire new EEE is based on convenience rather than increased income or advertising as reported by 58%. Households’ sale of old EEE appears to suggest reuse or recycling. However, 20.3% of households threw away old EEE. The Chi-Square Tests revealed that there is statistical relationship between respondents’ income and preference to buy, repair or service EEE. This study recommends a holistic approach to research on EEE consumption, review of extant regulations on WEEE management and stakeholders’ engagement for inclusive WEEE management. Keywords : Consumption, Electrical and Electronic Equipment, Households, Management, Ota – Nigeria, Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

Sustainable Management of the Plastic-Rich Fraction of WEEE by Utilization as a Reducing Agent in Metallurgical Processes

In modern society, there is a fast growth in the production of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE); however, rapid growth results in the frequent discarding of this equipment. During the treatment of discarded materials, a stream is generated that contains a high fraction of plastic materials, but also metals and oxides. This stream, which is called shredder residue material (SRM), is heterogeneous, which limits its recycling options. Utilizing this material in metallurgical processes allows the plastic fraction to be used as a reductant and energy source and the metallic fraction to be recycled and returned to the production of EEE. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of plastic-containing materials, especially SRM, as alternative reductants in metallurgical processes. The first step was to compare the thermal conversion characteristics of plastic-containing materials to the currently used reducing agent, i.e., coal. Three main candidates, polyurethane (PUR), polyethylene (PE), and SRM, were studied using a drop tube furnace and an optical single-particle burner. PE had the highest volatile content and the fastest conversion time, whereas PUR had the longest conversion time. Thereafter, plastic materials were tested at the industrial scale through injection to the zinc fuming process at the Boliden Rönnskär smelter. During the industrial trial, the amount of coal that was injected was reduced and substituted with plastic material. The results indicate the possibility of reducing the coal injection rate in favor of partial substitution with plastic materials.

Assessing the recycling potential of “unregulated” e-waste in Australia

Currently, Australian e-waste management system under the National Television and Computer Recycling Scheme (NTCRS) consider television, computer, and IT peripheral products and MobileMuster only considers mobile phones. A large proportion of E-waste from other categories is still unregulated. This study aims to estimate e-waste generation from this “unregulated” e-waste stream by a Weibull distribution-based sales-stock-lifespan model from 2010 to 2030. A total of sixteen unregulated products (eleven electrical appliances and five electronic equipment) were selected for the estimation. The results of this study show that Australia will generate 342 kilo tonnes (kt) of the e-waste in 2020, which is predicted to grow to 461 kt in 2030 with an annual increase rate of around 3.7% from the 16 unregulated electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). Home laundry appliances, air treatment products, refrigeration appliances, large cooking appliances, and heating appliances are the critical items that account for more than 70% of the total e-waste generation. Base metals such as Fe, Cu, and Al will have a sharp increase by the year 2030, accounting 234.27 kt, 31.19 kt, 13.93 kt, respectively from the estimated e-waste quantities. Electronics products (e.g., home audio and visual devices, portable players, video games hardware, and others) will be a significant source of precious and rare-earth elements. By 2030, the estimated economic value of the metals will vary in between 2.74–4.60 billion US$. This study provides suggestion to policymakers in decision making for the future collection and recycling of e-waste in Australia.

On designing an automated tool for capacitors removal from waste printed circuits boards

The mass electronics sector is one of the most important sources of waste, both in terms of volume and materials content with dangerous effects on the environment. Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) are the most valuable component embedded into Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEEs). The current amount of electronic systems is impressive while manual dismantling is a very common and non-efficient solution. On average, waste PCB accounts almost from 3% to 5% of the overall weight of waste electrical and electronic equipment. At this time, in Romania, the implemented solutions for waste PCB reduction are in a research phase, with no existing technological procedures that can be replicated. In the context of the TRADE-IT project we aim to design replicable architectures for waste printed boards reduction. Starting from the largest base plate and continuing to the smallest size, Extended ATX, ATX, Micro ATX, Mini ITX are some of the most used boards in a computer. When choosing a base plate from the ATX and/or microATX range, the shape factor must fit on a universal support bracket. The shape factor identifies the size of the circuit board, the location of the slots, and the location of the display board that comes out on the back of the computer. The shape factor also identifies the location of the holes that are used to mount the base plate in the universal clamp holder. Taking into account that capacitors represent approximately 8.6% of the PCB mass, we aim at designing an automated driven tool for their removal. The design is based on a robotic arm for motion manoeuvring, a programmable screwdriver and a custom-made end tool. In the current phase the proposed design was evaluated on controlled individual tests. The initial results highlight the feasibility of the proposed design while uncovering potential challenges for real-time implementation.

Towards Sustainable Management of E-Waste in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A Comparative Study of Three International Models

Waste produced from the end of useful life electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) denoted as e-waste, is one of the fastest waste streams worldwide. The growing amount of e-waste has caused a considerable challenge for policymakers to manage e-waste in an environmentally-sound mode in both developed and developing countries. Effective management of e-waste has become a global concern that is receiving growing attention due to the rapid increase in the quantity of e-waste. This is mainly attributed to the rapid technological innovation and shortening product’s useful lifespan coupled with the tendency of people to keep up with the advanced technologies. This study compared and critically appraised three e-waste management models (producer responsibility, not-producer responsibility, and sharing responsibility) currently applied in Malaysia and the United States of America (USA), in an attempt to explore best management practices for the collection and treatment of e-waste that can be adopted in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The data presented in this paper are secondary data obtained from a wide range of authoritative sources. This study recommends developing an e-waste national policy and regulatory framework to effectively manage the rapidly growing rate of e-waste in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

E-waste in Australia: Generation estimation and untapped material recovery and revenue potential

Abstract This study presents an estimation of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) products put-on-market (PoM), electronic-waste (e-waste) generation and the stock of EEE products in Australia from the year 2000–2047, considering seven categories that encompass 51 different types of product. Holt's double-exponential smoothing and dynamic lifespans (using the Weibull distribution function) are applied to compute past and future PoM and in e-waste generation, respectively. With the estimation, it is found that EEE PoM was increased from 470 kilo tons (kt) to 2135 kt in a timeframe of 2000–2015. On the other hand, e-waste generation was 115 kt in the year 2000, which then increased to 485 kt in the year 2010. For the projected period (2018–2047), the annual average growth of e-waste generation will be around 3%. E-waste generation will increase, particularly for large household appliances (LHA), small household appliances (SHA) and consumer equipment (CE), in terms of weight. This study evaluates the potentially recoverable material and revenue potential of regulated products (e.g., computer, televisions and other IT peripherals currently considered under the national television and computer recycling scheme (NTCRS) and mobile phones) and e-waste generated outside of the current product coverage. The gap between revenue generation from regulated and non-regulated products is quantitatively assessed for the first time and reported in this paper. Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis performed by Monte Carlo simulation showed the robustness and accuracy of this study. This quantification will provide invaluable insights to policymakers, including products in future legislative reform as well as the development of the recycling industry in Australia. Furthermore, this study presents a transparent process of calculation for time-series data that can be used for e-waste generation estimation for other countries, as well.