Einstein Method Research Articles

Analysis of Sediment Transport on the Upstream Code River, Indonesia

Purpose: The Code River is one of the pathways from debris flows of Mount Merapi that crosses the centre of Yogyakarta City, Indonesia. Along the Code River, there are densely populated areas, mainly when the river flows through the centre of Yogyakarta City. Mount Merapi is one of the most active volcanos in Indonesia, also in the world. Based on the data, the volcano usually erupts in 3-year periods for a small scale and nine years for a large scale. Its eruptions produce a considerable material. The eruption material from Mount Merapi carried by the debris flows affected the sedimentation process in rivers that originated in the volcano, particularly the Code River. This research was conducted to find out the amount of sediment transport and its impact on the upstream area of the Code River. Methodology: Methods used in the determination of sediment transport at Code River are Frijlink, Meyer Petter Muller, and Einstein method. Results: Based on the results, it shows that according to the Frijlink method, the sediment transport occurred is 19.79 – 85.43 m3/day and the sediment transport of MPM method is 15.06 - 77.23 m3/day, whereas the sediment transport of Einstein's method is 8.89 – 70.36 m3/day. The results also showed that the calculation of sediment transport using the three methods, a phenomenon of erosion took place at a location between observation points 1 and 2, and a phenomenon of sedimentation occurred at a location between observation points 2 and 3.

Book Review: Was Einstein's Science Jewish?, Einstein's Jewish Science: Physics at the Intersection of Politics and Religion

WAS EINSTEIN'S SCIENCE JEWISH? Einstein 's Science: Physics at the Intersection of Politics and Religion. Steven Gimbel (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2012). Pp. viii + 245. $24.95. ISBN 978-1-4214-0554-4.It is well known that Einstein was excoriated by the Nazis for his science. This book is a rumination on what that term might mean from a variety of perspectives. It provides quick overviews of the history of Judaism, Nazi Germany, intellectual life, and the anti-Einstein Aryan physics movement. The book's argument is rather fractured and it is unclear what the reader is intended to take away. The core question of the book is precisely the one asked by the Nazis: was Einstein's Jewish? Gimbel remains undecided about the answer. The book ends: So, is Einstein's theory of relativity science? Yes and no. And that is precisely what makes it Jewish (p. 217). But this conclusion really does not help us understand either Einstein or his critics better. For the most part, are simply left exactly where started.It is clearly important to the author that Einstein's be in some sense. If not, he says, we have no choice but to reduce Einstein to the level of Adam Sandler (p. 5), i.e., to just one more famous Jew. It is uncertain what the origin of this standard is (and it is not applied to Freud, whose is not labelled as Jewish). In his efforts to show how could be considered Jewish, Gimbel does a marvellous job showing how the examples of Descartes and Newton argue for the cultural dependence of scientific methods. Frustratingly, Gimbel's argument becomes quite weak once he tries to extend those examples to Einstein. He presents a very vague notion of a metaphorical science, which he suggests Einstein's work resembles. Talmudic is described as saying that absolute truth can never be accessed directly, but only assembled from a variety of different viewpoints. It is unclear how seriously the reader is supposed to take this notion: if seriously, then the Nazis were right (in terms very similar to those used by Lenard and Stark). If not, what exactly is being argued for? Near the end of the book even this metaphorical sense of science is abandoned and relabelled as being the of the oppressed.Gimbel clearly does not want to agree with the Nazis, so he tries to split the difference by saying that Einstein's methods were Talmudic even while the content of relativity theory was not. It seems to me that this is precisely backwards. …

Flow resistance over fixed roughness elements

The underlying mechanism of flow resistance in open channels and pipelines over rough boundary is investigated. Different from Einstein's method, this work extends the principle of boundary shear stress summation in a mobile bed to the rigid boundary. It is found that the principle is valid to express the friction factor in all pipe flow regimes, mainly concerning the transition from laminar to turbulent flows, and between fully smooth and fully rough turbulent flows. This research also evaluates the concept developed by Einstein regarding the relationship between skin friction and form drag. Experimental data of Nikuradse are used to test the obtained results, indicating that the above-mentioned method yields the best agreement with experimental data, relative to the other friction factor formulas available in the literature.

What?s Wrong with Einstein?s 1927 Hidden-Variable Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics?

Einstein's unpublished 1927 deterministic trajectory interpretation of quantum mechanics is critically examined, in particular with regard to the reason given by Einstein for rejecting his theory. It is shown that the aspect Einstein found objectionable - the mutual dependence of the motions of particles when the (many-body) wavefunction factorises - is a generic attribute of his theory but that this feature may be removed by modifying Einstein's method in either of two ways: using a suggestion of Grommer or, in a physically important special case, using a simpler technique. It is emphasized though that the presence or absence of the interdependence property does not determine the acceptability of a trajectory theory. It is shown that there are other grounds for rejecting Einstein's theory (and the two modified theories), to do with its domain of applicability and compatibility with empirical predictions. That Einstein's reason for rejection is not a priori grounds for discarding a trajectory theory is demonstrated by reference to an alternative deterministic trajectory theory that displays similar particle interdependence yet is compatible with quantum predictions.

Prediction of Discontinuity in Stage-Discharge Rating Curves

Many investigators have observed that in mobile sand bed streams, there is a range of flows over which two subcritical depths of flow are possible. This phenomenon is typically attributed to a hysteresis effect in which the discharge is changing more rapidly than the bed forms can adjust to the new discharge. This theory is supported by the fact that higher depths of flow are typically observed on the ascending limb of the hydrograph, while shallower depths tend to occur on the descending limb of the hydrograph. The magnitude of the discontinuity would then primarily be a function of the time rate of change in the discharge, and would not have to be a unique value. An alternative hypothesis, presented by the writers, demonstrates that in mobile sand bed channels where bed forms occur, two depths of flow are numerically and physically possible. Data collected by other researchers were used to develop a bed form friction factor predictor for narrow flumes and wide sand bed channels with appropriate corrections for side roughness. The friction factor predictor is used in conjunction with Einstein's method for the separation of wall roughness from bed roughness to predict the depth of flow for a given discharge. It is demonstrated that, under some hydraulic conditions, there are two numerical solutions to the system of equations used to predict the depth of flow. Both of the solutions appear to be physically possible. The two depths of flow are referred to as sequential depths. Application of the method to field data collected by Colby shows that the magnitudes of the sequential depths are approximately equal to the two depths observed by Colby.

Error Estimate in Einstein's Suspended Sediment Load Method

Computation of suspended sediment load in open channels relies on the integration of the product of the suspended sediment concentrations and the fluid velocity profile. Sediment in the flow, however, travels at a lower velocity than the fluid. Errors due to the relative velocity between sediment particles and fluid are evaluated based on experimental data. The procedure for calculating the errors in Einstein's method does not involve calculating the actual suspended load; instead, it relies on determining the relative error between the loads by using both the fluid velocity profile and the sediment velocity profile. Although there is an abundance of data on the velocity profiles in open channel flows, with and without sediment in the flow, data on sediment velocity profiles is scarce. The analysis of the available data indicates that Einstein's method for computing the suspended sediment load overestimates the load by about 40%, in some cases. Further data collection and subsequent analysis is needed to more accurately formulate the difference in sediment loads based on Einstein's method.

Bed Load Transport of Sediment Mixtures

Experiments were conducted on alluvial beds of four sediment mixtures having different arithmetic mean diameters and standard deviations. The bed load transport rates of individual fractions were measured. Einstein's method, Proffitt and Sutherland's method, and Misri's method of calculation of the bed load transport of individual fractions for sediment mixtures were checked with carefully collected laboratory data. By analyzing the data on lines similar to those of Misri, et al, their method of calculation of the bed load transport rate for individual fraction is modified to make it applicable over a wide range of parameters. The relationship between the dimensionless grain shear stress and the dimensionless bed load transport rate developed by Misri, et al., for uniform sediments was made applicable to sediment mixtures by introducing a multiplying correction factor. The parameters affecting this correction factor were identified and a relationship obtained for the same by analysis of an extreme amount of laboratory and river data. Use of this factor along with the transport law for uniform sediments enables determination of the rate of bed load transport of the individual fractions of a mixture.

The origins of Einstein's use of formal asymmetries

Summary Several authors have used the expression ‘formal asymmetry’ to characterize Einstein's method of introducing conceptual innovations. Prior to his use of formal asymmetries, however, Einstein relied upon analogy to introduce his major concepts, but without satisfactory results. He gradually refined another technique, reflection upon empirical problems, into the method of formal asymmetries, with impressive results. This historical study, based upon a textual analysis of Einstein's publications, raises a series of questions regarding the place of formal asymmetries in his work.

The coming of age of Erwin Schrödinger: His quantum statistics of ideal gases

In the two years preceding the development of wave mechanics in early 1926 ' the part of the quantum theory of ideal gases which was later called BoseEinstein statistics was essentially created. In the summer of 1924 Albert Einstein employed S.N. Bose's statistical method to calculate the entropy of a gas of monatomic material particles. This problem had been of continuing interest since 1914, when Walther Nernst described "degeneration" of gases the reduction of their specific heats at very low temperatures.2 Nernst's subsequent explanations of gas degeneracy, as it was soon called, had centered on quantization, although for a decade it remained unclear just what parameter of the gas one should quantize. Soon after the appearance of Einstein's paper3, a classic of quantum statistical thermodynamics, there followed a vigorous exchange between Max Planck in Berlin and Erwin Schrodinger in Zurich, regarding the methods that should be used to calculate statistically the entropy of such a gas. The points which these physicists resolved strengthened the foundations of Einstein's method and of his explanation of degeneracy.4 Schrodinger held a pivotal position between Planck and Einstein in advancing the merits of Einstein's theory. In a role he had played before, Schro-

Derivation of the string equation of motion in general relativity

x 5(x' —z'{s))5(x' —z'(s }) is the mass density which is infinite on the world line z =z (s) of the singularity and zero elsewhere. Because of the scalar density character of the 6 function the left-hand side of Eq. (2} is a tensor density. From Eq. (1) follows the conservation law The string equation of motion was further studied by many authors' ' in connection with duality. The purpose of this note is to show that the worldsheet equation (8) can be derived in general relativity following Einstein's method for the geodesic world line.

Sediment Transport in Tidal River

Estuarine sedimentation is a subject of significant interest in the field of sedimentation. A sediment transport computation technique is developed for a tidal river with graded bed sediment facilitated by the application of relationships from the well-known Einstein's method and of these relationships assuming freezing of flow at the instant of computation. A flow model was used for evaluation of the intensity of shear. Results of computation are given for an ebb observation and two flood observations. The comparison of computed results with measurements indicate fair agreement in the coarser range of sediments.

On the Elasticity of an Elastic Body Containing Small Rigid Spheres

The elasticity of an elastic body containing a large number of small rigid spheres has been calculated following Einstein's method for calculating the viscosity of a solution [Ann. Phys. 19 (1906) 289]. The effective elastic moduli have been expressed as a function of the elastic medium and the volume fraction of the inserted spheres.