Eighth Century BC Research Articles

Returning Heroes: Greek and Native Interaction in (Pre‐)Colonial South Italy and Beyond

SummaryThe cultural interaction between the native population of south Italy and the first immigrants from Greece and the Levant in the early first millennium BC has been exhaustively discussed in recent years. In most cases the debate has been focused on the native side of the encounter, on imports and imitations of Greek and Levantine products found in Italy and on the effects that these foreign goods and the ideologies attached to them had on the local population. Only rarely, however, has the question been asked of how the encounter affected the Greek and Levantine participants. New evidence from the necropolis of Francavilla Marittima, a pivotal point in the early trade and exchange network across the Mediterranean, reveals the adoption of Greek drinking and dining customs based on the notion of ritualized guest‐friendship by the local elite as early as the third quarter of the eighth century BC. As Greek xenia functions on the basis of equal rank of the participants involved, it follows from this discovery that Greek aristocrats must have been present in the pre‐colonial world from a very early time. In the second part of the paper the question is raised of the material evidence in Greece and the Aegean world for these early contacts with the native Italic population, focusing in particular on the evidence from Eretria, one of the leading powers in the early Greek exploration of the West.

Monte Finocchito and Heloros Pottery Production: New Evidence through Technological Studies and Material Analysis

AbstractThis paper discusses the use of non-destructive portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) to distinguish sources of variation in 8th Century BC Greek and Sicilian ceramics. The project comprises an element of my PhD study through La Trobe University, concerning Hellenic colonies established from the eighth century BC in the south of Italy, and on Sicily in particular. This specific case study looks at the relationships established between the indigenous site of Monte Finocchito and the Greek settlement of Heloros, both located in south-eastern Sicily. The results demonstrate the usefulness of the pXRF technique for detecting material variations which are not readily apparent using traditional visual analysis during fieldwork.

Mandolin-shaped Bronze Dagger Culture and Ethnic Group in the Liaoxi Region

요서지역은 기원전 2000년기 초에 하가점하층문화가 등장하면서 청동기시대로 접어든다. 하가점 상층문화가 기원전 2000년기 말부터 서랍목륜하와 노합하유역에서 발달하였고, 대•소릉하유역에서 는 위영자유형에 이어 십이대영자문화가 등장한다. 십이대영자문화는 기원전 9~8세기에 등장해서 주변지역과 활발한 교류관계를 가지며 발달하는데, 전국 연문화가 기원전 300년경에 등장하면서 급 격하게 쇠퇴한다. 고고학적으로 십이대영자문화의 종족을 파악하기는 쉽지 않지만 그 문화적 연속성이 어디로, 어떻게 이어지고 있는지를 통해 짐작해 볼 수 있다. 십이대영자문화의 연속성은 요동과 길림성 중남부 및 한반도를 중심으로 분포하는 세형동검문화로 이어지고 있기 때문에 고대 우리 민족의 형성과 발전과 정에 많은 영향을 끼친 것으로 생각된다. 중국측 사료에는 중국 동북방에 있던 다양한 종족집단들에 대한 기록이 남아있다. 하가점상층문화는 북방계 청동기문화라는 점에서 山戎이나 東胡로 판단되며, 십이대영자문화는 濊貊으로 추정된다. 先秦文獻을 보면, 서주 초기에는 맥과 예가 모두 확인되다가 서주 중후기부터 동주대까지는 맥만 확인되고, 전국 말~진•한대에는 예가 다시 등장한다. 이러한 상황을 요서지역 청동기문화의 전개과정과 비교해보면, 십이대영자문화 의 종족은 예맥 중에서도 맥으로 이해된다. 이러한 십이대영자문화가 붕괴함에 따라 맥계 유이민들이 예의 지역인 요동과 길림성 중남부로 대거 유입하게 되면서 이 지역에서 예와 맥이 혼거하는 양상이 나타나게 된다. 그래서 [史記] 이후의 사료들에 예•맥•예맥이 혼재 하는 것은 요동지역에서 예와 맥이 융합되어 가는 과정을 보여주는 것으로 이해된다.The Bronze Age in the Liaoxi region begun around the early second millennium BC. Development of Bronze Age culture in earnest occurred with the emergence of the Up¬per Xiajiadian Culture and the Shiertaiyingzi Culture in the early of the first millennium BC. The Shiertaiyingzi Culture developed until around 300 BC since it had appeared in the ninth to eighth century BC. After around 300 BC, it went through rapid decline caused by advance of the Yan culture. In fact, it is difficult to exactly define the ethic group of the Shiertiayingzi Culture. However, it is possibly assumed that continuous re¬lation between the Shiertaiyingzi Culture and the Slender-bronze-dagger Culture in the Korean Peninsula contributed to the establishment of the ancient Korean Ethnicity. The ethnic group of the Upper Xiajiadian Culture is presumed as Shanrong or Donghu. Meanwhile, the ethnic group of the Shiertiayingzi Culture is supposed to Maek among Yemaek which is comprised of Ye and Maek. When Shiertiayingzi Culture collapsed around 300 BC, Yemaek’s ethnicity started to establish by the influx of Maek from the Liaoxi region into the Lioadong region.

Evidence for Migration Influx into the Ancient Greek Colony of Metaponto: A Population Genetics Approach Using Dental Nonmetric Traits

AbstractAncient Greek colonies were founded by Greek seafarers all along the Mediterranean coast as early as the eighth century bc. Despite extensive archaeological and historical research, the population structure of the inhabitants of Greek colonies and their relationship to indigenous populations are still debated. Here, we perform a biodistance analysis to reconstruct migration and gene flow between the ancient Greek colony of Metaponto (southern Italy) and indigenous groups in the surrounding hinterland (900–250 bc). We collected dental nonmetric trait data of 355 human skeletons from the indigenous Italic sites of Santa Maria d'Anglona, Incoronata and Passo di Giacobbe. This data set is compared with an urban and rural sample of the Greek colony of Metaponto comprising 351 individual dentitions. The R‐matrix approach is used to estimate inter‐population relationships and FST. The resulting kinship coefficients indicate that the three indigenous groups exhibit greater similarity to each other and possess lesser similarity to the two Metapontian samples. Interestingly, the two samples of Metaponto are least similar to each other, although they are geographically very close. The FST estimates confirm this pattern and reveal greater biological variation between the two nearby Metaponto samples (FST = 0.0603) than between the three geographically fairly distant indigenous groups (FST = 0.0389). We conclude that the Greek colony of Metaponto included large numbers of people with diverse geographical origins, whereas the indigenous Italic communities of the surrounding hinterland exhibited high levels of homogeneity and cohesion. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Problem of Peace in the Ecumenic Age

After a brief presentation of the work of the German-born American political philosopher Eric Voegelin, Prof. Barry Cooper focuses on what Voegelin calls the Ecumenic Age, the period from the rise of the Persian around the eighth century BC to the fall of the Roman Empire around the eighth century AD. From this period, we can learn that any intramundane apocalyptic efforts to unify politically the ecumene (or inhabited world) and thus to bring an end to history are doomed to fail. Yet this dream remains the driving force behind many contemporary radical ideologies.

Human impact on Holocene sediment dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean – the example of the Roman harbour of Ephesus

AbstractDuring the past millennia, many erosion and accumulation processes have been modified by anthropogenic impact. This holds especially true for the environs of ancient settlements and their harbours along the Mediterranean coasts. Our multi‐proxy investigations in the Roman harbour and the harbour canal of Ephesus (western Turkey) reveals that humans have significantly triggered soil erosion during the last three millennia. Since the eighth century bc, and especially since the Hellenistic period, a high sedimentation rate indicates fast alluviation and delta progradation of the Küçük Menderes. Deforestation, agriculture (especially ploughing) and grazing (especially goats) were the main reasons for erosion of the river catchment area. One consequence was significant siltation of the Hellenistic/Roman harbour basin. This sediment trap archives the human impact, which was strongly enhanced from Hellenistic/Roman to Byzantine times (second/first centuries bc to the sixth/seventh centuries ad), evidenced by high sedimentation rates, raised values of heavy metal contaminations [lead (Pb), copper (Cu)], the occurrence of fruit tree pollen and of intestinal parasites. From the middle to the end of the first millennium ad, the influence of Ephesus declined, which resulted in a decrease of human impact. Studies of several ancient settlements around the Mediterranean Sea tell a comparable story. They also confirm that during their most flourishing periods the human impact totally overprinted the climatic one. To detect the latter, geo‐bio‐archives of relatively pristine areas have to be investigated in detail. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Porphyreon through the Ages: The Fading Archaeological Heritage of the Lebanese Coast

ABSTRACT Ancient Porphyreon (Jiyeh/Nebi Younis) was a large rural settlement located on the coast of modern-day Lebanon, near the Phoenician city of Sidon. This article presents the initial research results of the stratigraphic data, extending from at least the eighth century BC to the seventh century AD, and explores how Phoenician village functioned. Analysis proves that it played a significant role in the local economy—on the one hand, providing for the city of Sidon and, on the other, mediating the exchange of goods with rural settlements, scattered across the mountainous hinterland. Uncovering the mysteries of this coastal settlement is extremely important, especially in light of the increasing threat to the archaeological heritage of Lebanon.

Erebuni in the context of Urartean fortresses in the Ararat plain: Sources and problems

Erebuni fortress, located on the hill of Arin Berd (Yerevan) is one of the three main Urartian fortresses erected in the Ararat plain, together with Argishtihinili (Armavir) and Teishebai URU (Karmir Blur). Since the beginning of the eighth century BC, these fortresses marked the control of the fertile plain of Ararat by the Kingdom of Urartu. Inscriptions discovered in different sites bring an interesting light on resource exploitation and the role of granaries in this fertile plain. New research conducted since 2008 in the fortress of Erebuni, as part of a Franco-Armenian cooperation, also shed new light on these fortresses, as power center, sanctuaries and granaries. These new research allows reconsideration of the chronology and the changes that marked the end of the kingdom of Urartu during the second half of the seventh century BC.

A Compositional and Microstructural Study of Eighth‐Century BC Bronzes from Moita Da Ladra (Tagus Estuary): How Did the Spread of the Phoenician Metallurgy Take Place in Western Iberia?

AbstractMetals from a votive deposit at Moita da Ladra (Tagus Estuary) dating to the eighth century bc were studied by micro‐EDXRF, optical microscopy and Vickers testing to investigate the adoption of Phoenician innovations by indigenous communities. Artefacts are made of bronze alloys with suitable tin contents (11.6 ± 2.3 wt%) and very low iron impurities (<0.05 wt%), and were often manufactured using the long post‐casting sequence. Comparisons with indigenous and Phoenician metallurgies from western Iberia revealed a conservative technology suggesting that the spread of Phoenician innovations was very slow. In this region, the adoption of a diversified copper‐based metallurgy and reduction furnaces only seems to occur during the Post‐Orientalizing Period, c. sixth to fourth centuries bc.

A goddess among Storm-gods. The stele of Tavşantepe and the landscape monuments of southern Cappadocia

AbstractLittle is known about the geo-political landscape of central Anatolia after the collapse of the Hittite Empire. In particular, almost no archaeological evidence for stone monumental art dating to the post-Hittite period north of the Taurus mountains has survived. Now, the stele of Tavşantepe sheds new light on the history of southern Cappadocia during the so-called ‘dark age’ and offers us a unique insight into the artistic production of this region at the beginning of the first millennium BC. Moreover, its location along one of the most important routes connecting southern Cappadocia with central Anatolia, the Altunhisar valley, helps us reconstruct the socio-religious developments in this area in the period predating the emergence of the Neo-Hittite Kingdom of Tuwana in the eighth century BC.

Pelvic and lower extremity injuries in Homer's Iliad: a review of the literature.

The Iliad, composed approximately in the middle of the eighth century bc, constitutes the leading and oldest known example of heroic epic. The Homeric epic presents the conflicts that took place during the last year of the 10-year lasting Trojan War, offering a realistic description of battle wounds. We studied the text of The Iliad in ancient Greek and in the translations in modern Greek and English and searched for all recorded injuries to the pelvis and lower extremities. A total of 16 traumatic injuries of pelvis and lower extremities were described, including 7 fatal wounds, while in 9 cases, the outcome was unknown.The Iliad remains the oldest record of Greek medicine and a unique source of surgical history. To study the vividly reported events is a great experience, particularly for a surgeon.

Ancient Greece: fundamental transition from convention-based to observation-based art.

The realistic representation of the human figure is one of the hallmarks of ancient Greek art. It reflects the increasing importance of observation in that culture. In painting and sculpture the transition from pure decoration to naturalist representation began in the Archaic period (600–480 BC), and continued through the Pre-Classical (480–450 BC) and Classical (450–400 BC) periods of Greek history. Artistic creativity was at least in part a result of underlying societal and political change. The independent city-states (poleis) emerged in Greece in the eighth century BC. In the sixth century, the Greek world bordered the Persian Empire, which extended from Thrace on the Greek mainland, through the Eastern shores of the Mediterranean, to Egypt and North Africa and to India in the East. There were many trade routes in the Eastern Mediterranean that linked the Greek cities with the Levant, Egypt, and the Asia Minor. In addition, emigration from the homeland was part of the Greek way of life, and by the sixth century Greek settlements were established in southern France, Italy, Egypt, and North Africa, as well as on the shores of the Black Sea. Although the migrant Greeks retained their language and rituals, they were exposed to local cultures. The major conflict between the …

VOTIVE OFFERINGS FROM THE SANCTUARY OF ARTEMIS ORTHIA, SPARTA, IN LIVERPOOL COLLECTIONS

Two museums in the city of Liverpool have material from the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, Sparta: the Garstang Museum of Archaeology in the Department of Archaeology, Classics and Egyptology at the University of Liverpool, and World Museum, part of National Museums Liverpool.The artefacts from the Artemis Orthia sanctuary which are now in the collections in Liverpool represent all periods of the use of the sanctuary, between the eighth century bc and the third century ad. They comprise lead figurines and miniature vessels, both characteristic of Laconian sites, as well as other types of pottery and terracotta figurines. Large and more extravagant offerings, such as items made from ivory or bronze, are not represented. However, the range of artefacts, particularly lead figurines, is impressive, and complements the material from the sanctuary which has already been published, primarily in the volume edited by Dawkins and published in 1929. In addition, the collections include a few objects of exceptional interest, mentioned in the article with further details in the Appendix. A full listing of votive offerings from the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia in Liverpool collections complements the article.

Propuesta de modelo pedagógico de los gestos y acciones simbólicas de los profetas

<p align="justify">El artículo desarrolla los elementos que conforman un modelo pedagógico, identificados en los escritos proféticos del siglo VIII a. C., es decir, en los libros de Amós, Oseas, Miqueas e Isaías, considerados la época clásica del profetismo bíblico. Estos elementos incluyen la concepción de hombre, de sociedad, de conocimiento, y también la gestión de los procesos de enseñanzaaprendizaje. En primer lugar, se presenta una aproximación a las propuestas pedagógicas para la enseñanza bíblica. Luego se indican los elementos constitutivos comunes a las diferentes propuestas de modelos pedagógicos. Posteriormente, se desarrollan dichos elementos en los libros proféticos mencionados, referenciando su contexto histórico, sociocultural y religioso y los perfiles humano y vocacional de cada uno de los profetas en mención.</p>

La presencia fenicia en la Península Ibérica: el Cabezo Pequeño del Estaño (Guardamar del Segura, Alicante)

In this paper the results of recent archaeological research in the settlement of Cabezo Pequeno del Estano (Guardamar, Alicante) are presented. The research consists of the study of the materials excavated in the 1990s and an architectural analysis during recent restoration works. This new research allows us to better understand the first evidence of Phoenician colonization on the Alicante Coast as well as the settlement pattern in the area of the mouth of Segura River during the Early Iron Age. The analysis of old pictures, made before the partial destruction of the site, has allowed to reconstruct its original dimensions (over one hectare) and a large part of its walls. New data allow us to observe the urban features of the site, which was previously published as a small fort. In parallel, the archaeological materials from its last occupation, dated to the end of the eighth century BC, make us think that it was the first Phoenician site in the Segura mouth. It was abandoned at that time and the population moved to a larger site, located by the open sea and known by the modern name of La Fonteta.

Socio-ekonomska i simbolička uloga importovanih metalnih posuda s Glasinca

The earliest traces of imported goods from the Mediterranean south are typical for Glasinac plateau. During the eighth century BC there was a rise in livestock aristocracy in Glasinac area. Prominent individuals were able to mobilize larger labor force for the construction of public facilities, as well as to show their power through the ownership of prestigious items. One of the markers of the new ruling class is the emergence of imported metal vessels, which is a theme to be discussed in this paper. Parts of metal vessel sets were found only in grave assemblages dated from the early 7th century to the end of the 5th century. Besides being the distinctive grave goods found in princely graves, from the 5th century they become a part of the inventory of luxury warrior graves of Glasinac area.Most of the imported metal vessels from Glasinac were produced in south Italic and /or Etruscan workshops. There were two main forms of distribution of goods from southern Italy and Etruria: direct trade and exchange with local communities along the coastline and/or trading through colonial intermediaries on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. The first model whereby the imported material came directly to the local communities without an intermediary is less likely. The fact is that there is no evidence yet of the large settlements of indigenous population with a capacity to accept goods and carry out further redistribution. This, clearly, does not imply the inferior position of the local communities. Nevertheless, the social structure itself and the economic strategy of the early communities of the Iron Age on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea were not focused on the urbanization or creation of a wide network of monopoly over trade and exchange. A direct contact would have indicated much more imported finds among the local aristocracy's grave goods, which was not the case. The number of imported finds is very small on the Adriatic shoreline and in the immediate hinterland when compared with the Glasinac plateau and further inland. The model of colonial intermediary is a more probable answer to the question where the goods from Italic centres ended up. Along with the Italic imports somewhat bigger in number, the Greek continental goods included mainly phialae and cups. The origin of imported objects found among the "barbarians" in Glasinac is mostly interpreted through their economic activity, with a strong Greek economic and social component bringing changes to the barbaric hinterland. These postulates were later criticised by researchers. Although the imported objects played an important role in defining the social prestige, they did not have power to shape up or change the existing social and political relations. Imported objects represent the symbolic power of the chief, his status and economic position, but not the origin of his power and status. Prior to contacts with Greece, the chiefs had to create objects that symbolically represented their social, military and economic power. For chiefs from Glasinac these are likely to have been lavishly ornamented grinders and/or parts of weapons.. The trade and exchange with metal vessel sets or their parts should be seen, without any doubt, as a model of redistibution through several intermediaries. Yet, it is not always possible to make a sharp distinction between a ritual exchange and an economic exchange. Depositing metal vessel sets with chiefs is the final act of distribution and circulation of vessels in the society.

Mid- to Late Holocene shoreline reconstruction and human occupation in Ancient Eretria (South Central Euboea, Greece)

Few studies have aimed to reconstruct landscape change in the area of Eretria (South Central Euboea, Greece) during the last 6000years. The aim of this paper is to partially fill in this gap by examining the interaction between Mid- to Late Holocene shoreline evolution and human occupation, which is documented in the area from the Late Neolithic to the Late Roman period (with discontinuities). Evidence of shoreline displacements is derived from the study of five boreholes (maximum depth of 5.25m below the surface) drilled in the lowlands of Eretria. Based on sedimentological analyses and micro/macrofaunal identifications, different facies have been identified in the cores and which reveal typical features of deltaic progradation with marine, lagoonal, fluvio-deltaic and fluvial environments. In addition, a chronostratigraphy has been obtained based on 20 AMS 14C radiocarbon dates performed on samples of plant remains and marine/lagoonal shells found in situ. The main sequences of landscape reconstruction in the plain of Eretria can be summarized as follows: a marine environment predominated from ca. 4000 to 3200cal.BC and a gradual transition to shallow marine conditions is observed ca. 3200–3000cal.BC due to the general context of deltaic progradation west of the ancient city. Subsequently, from ca. 3000 to 2000cal.BC, a lagoon occupied the area in the vicinity of the Temple of Apollo and the settlement's development was restricted to several fluvio-deltaic levees, thus severely limiting human activities in the plain. From ca. 2000 to 800cal.BC, a phase of shallow marine presence prevailed and constrained settlement on higher ground, forcing abandonment of the major part of the plain. Finally, since the eighth century BC, the sea has regressed southward and created the modern landscape.

The Surpu: exorcism of antisocial personality disorder in ancient Mesopotamia

The history of the medical description of personality disorders is generally accepted as starting in the late eighteenth century with Pinel. However there may be a much earlier record of the problems of severe personality disorder. In this article we examine the Surpu, an ancient Mesopotamian incantation written in cuneiform on tablets found at the palace of Asurbanipal originating in the eighth century BC. The Surpu is an incantation by a man who seeks exorcism from what seems to be numerous anti-social traits and behaviours and is quoted in this article below. A comparison is made between the traits contained in the Surpu and items of anti-social personality disorder as expressed in the ICD-10 and DSM-IV. This shows that almost all the items contained in these modern glossaries were also recorded in the Surpu incantation. Anti-social personality disorder was probably recognised in ancient Mesopotamia but was described in the religious, rather than the legal or medical literature of the day.

Genetic evidence does not support an etruscan origin in Anatolia

The debate on the origins of Etruscans, documented in central Italy between the eighth century BC and the first century AD, dates back to antiquity. Herodotus described them as a group of immigrants from Lydia, in Western Anatolia, whereas for Dionysius of Halicarnassus they were an indigenous population. Dionysius' view is shared by most modern archeologists, but the observation of similarities between the (modern) mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of Turks and Tuscans was interpreted as supporting an Anatolian origin of the Etruscans. However, ancient DNA evidence shows that only some isolates, and not the bulk of the modern Tuscan population, are genetically related to the Etruscans. In this study, we tested alternative models of Etruscan origins by Approximate Bayesian Computation methods, comparing levels of genetic diversity in the mtDNAs of modern and ancient populations with those obtained by millions of computer simulations. The results show that the observed genetic similarities between modern Tuscans and Anatolians cannot be attributed to an immigration wave from the East leading to the onset of the Etruscan culture in Italy. Genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia do exist, but date back to a remote stage of prehistory, possibly but not necessarily to the spread of farmers during the Neolithic period.

A REDISCOVERED LOST SEAL FROM GEZER

A carnelian pebble stamp seal excavated by Macalister at Gezer and believed lost, and a seal kept today in the Bible Lands Museum in Jerusalem, are one and the same. A cast of the original kept by the Palestine Exploration Fund in London proves to be identical to the seal in Jerusalem. The unique iconography of the seal showing a man in a cultic gesture in front of a griffin, as well as its stylistic details, show it to be an Assyrianized product of the late eighth or seventh century bc, possibly of local production.