Egyptian Papyri Research Articles

The Therapeutic Use of Honey

Honey has been shown to have antibacterial activity against a variety of species of bacteria in vitro. Although the evidence regarding the use of honey for wound treatment in neonates and infants is interesting, it is not strong. The sample sizes in the cited clinical studies are small; there were no comparison groups and no randomization. It appears that honey may be safe and useful in treating difficult-to-heal infected wounds, but double-blinded randomized controlled clinical trials with sufficient power are needed to determine the efficacy of honey in both initial wound management and secondary treatment of infected and poorly healing wounds. A comparison of different types of honey would be an important component of these trials. Currently, there is not enough evidence to recommend one type of honey over another type; however, honey and wound care experts do recommend honey for wound care, not for consumption.

Analytical approach to the conservation of the ancient Egyptian manuscript “Bakai Book of the Dead”: a case study

This work was devoted to identification of ink used in the Egyptian papyrus “Bakai Book of the Dead”. The elemental composition of micro-samples was obtained by using Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy. Various areas of the papyrus covered by hieroglyphs were investigated, with the special attention focused on the “white” and “black” ink. Surprisingly, Pb was identified as the main element of the both ink traces. Therefore, the hypothesis was made that galena (PbS) was the main component of the ink used for writing this unique document and that the white colour of the ink is a consequence of the discoloration. In order to verify this assumption and to follow the chemical processes causing this phenomena for the black hieroglyphs model samples were prepared. A mixture of powdered galena and gum Arabic was deposited on Whatman paper support. These models were used at first to evaluate a behaviour of PbS ink in oxidative environment, then to evaluate the possible conservation procedure for the endangered document.

Spinal cord injury – scientific challenges for the unknown future

The history of spinal cord injuries starts with the ancient Egyptian medical papyrus known as the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. The papyrus written about 2500 B.C.by the physician and architect of the Sakkara pyramids Imhotep, describes “crushed vertebra in his neck” as well as symptoms of neurological deterioration. An ailment not to be treated was the massage to the patients at that time. This fatalistic attitude remained until the end of World War II when the first rehabilitation centre focused on the rehabilitation of spinal cord injured patients was opened. Our knowledge of the pathophysiological processes, both the primary as well as the secondary, has increased tremendously. However, all this knowledge has only led to improved medical care but not to any therapeutic method to restore, even partially, the neurological function.Neuroprotection is defined as measures to counteract secondary injury mechanisms and/or limit the extent of damage caused by self-destructive cellular and tissue processes. The co-existence of several distinctly different injury mechanisms after trauma has provided opportunities to explore a large number of potentially neuroprotective agents in animal experiments such as methylprednisolone sodium succinate. The results of this research have been very discouraging and pharmacological neuroprotection for patients with spinal cord injury has fallen short of the expectations created by the extensive research and promising observations in animal experiments. The focus of research has now, instead, been transformed to the field of neural regeneration. This field includes the discovery of regenerating obstacles in the nerve cell and/or environmental factors but also various regeneration strategies such as bridging the gap at the site of injury as well as transplantation of foetal tissue and stem cells. The purpose of this review is to highlight selected experimental and clinical studies that form the basis for undertaking future challenges in the research field of spinal cord injury. We will focus our discussion on methods either preventing the consequences of secondary injury in the acute period (neuroprotection) and/or various techniques of neural regeneration in the sub-acute and chronic phase and finally expose some thoughts about future avenues within this scientific field.

Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy: A Review And Future Directions

INTRODUCTION In millennia past, descriptions of congestive heart failure (CHF) often included ancient remedies. The earliest Egyptian papyri translated in the last century reveal a remarkably sophisticated understanding of heart ailments being the prime culprit in conditions of generalized edema (also called dropsy) and CHF.1 Starting in medieval times and continuing until the late 19th century, treatment for CHF included bloodletting to restore balance among the four humors.2 Writings as early as 1250 A.D. described using adjunctive pharmacologic therapy such as cardiac glycoside-containing herbal extracts to treat CHF.3 Several centuries ago, William Withering, a physician and botanist, wrote about the clinical effects of a foxglove plant extract in treating CHF. As a result, digitalis and its derivatives became one of the earliest medicines used in heart failure therapy. Rather than bloodletting, medical management of CHF has progressed in the last century to include diuretics to reduce pulmonary conge...

The early history of aphasiology: From the Egyptian surgeons (c. 1700 bc) to Broca (1861)

Background: According to many aphasiologists the scientific study of aphasia dates back to the second half of the 19th century when Broca and Wernicke described the two classical forms of aphasia that now bear their names. About 100 years later, Benton and Joynt presented a historical overview of the literature on aphasia from the Hippocratic writings (c. 400 bc) to 1800. Since this seminal review (Benton & Joynt, 1960) there has been a growing interest in the history of aphasiology, resulting in many papers (cf. the Journal of the History of the Neurosciences) and even books (e.g., Eling, 1994; Finger, 2000; Jacyna, 2000) about hitherto unknown writings about aphasia. The authors would like to thank Anne Baker, Suzanne Ludérus, Ceske Niewold, and Eline Veldkamp for their comments on an earlier version of this paper.Because of his psychological‐anatomical theory of aphasia, Wernicke is considered by some (e.g., Geschwind, 1974) as the true founder of aphasiology. Aims: The aim of this paper is to present a new, updated, and extensive review of the early history of aphasiology, starting with the earliest observation of “speechlessness” in an Egyptian papyrus (c. 1700 bc) and ending with Broca's discovery of the “speech centre” in 1861. Main Contribution: By presenting and discussing passages taken from major contributions to aphasiology in the past 3500 years, this literature survey offers a review of the clinical observations and theoretical analyses of aphasic phenomena preceding the pioneering article by Broca in 1861. Conclusions: Although many forms and symptoms of aphasia were described and a few theoretical explanations of its nature had been advanced before 1800, significant hypotheses about the localisation of aphasia were not formulated until the period 1800–1860. Based on his (otherwise misguided) “phrenological” theory, Gall (in Gall & Stuart, 1806) was the first to localise language in the frontal cortex. This hypothesis was then tested and supported by neuropathological data collected by Bouillaud (1825) who not only localised language in the frontal lobes, but also made the fundamental distinction between “a general faculty of language” and “the faculty of articulated speech”, thus preparing the ground for Broca's famous discovery in 1861.

Contributions to the Provenance of the Zagreb Mummy

The famous Zagreb Mummy, on whose linen wrappings the longest known Etruscan text called Liber linteus Zagrebiensis (“The linen book of Zagreb”) was written, came to the Archaeological museum Zagreb together with an Egyptian papyrus containing fragmental texts of The Book of the Dead. For almost 160 years experts have been trying to answer the questions of the relation of this Egyptian mummy to the Etruscan text. The Papyrus Zagreb 602 written in hieratic script is one of the important traces in this research. It is in good condition and many small fragments are almost impossible to put together, but the vignette with the names of two persons to whom it was dedicated is preserved. The text reveals that the priest of the god Khnum, the nobleman Perekh-Khons was buried together with his wife Nesi-Khons probably in Upper Egypt during the end of the Late or in the Ptolemaic period. The date generally fits to the C 14 dating of the mummy, but no other data taken from it points to the assumption that the mummy was the woman called Nesi-Khons.

Measurement of Circulating Glucose Concentrations: The Time Is Now for Consistency among Methods and Types of Samples

Diabetes mellitus was first described in the Egyptian papyrus of Ebers in 1552 BC by people who noted the attraction of insects to the “sweet urine” of those who produced abnormal amounts and later by tasters of urine who could fashion a diagnosis by recognizing the “sweet taste”. The name “diabetes”, initially used in the 1st century AD, comes from the Greek word meaning “to pass through”. “Mellitus”, a Latin word meaning “sweet as honey”, was added in the 18th century. The first chemical tests to measure sugar in urine were developed in the early 19th century. Early in the last century, whole-blood colorimetric analyses became available to clinicians, despite complexities in the preparation and analysis of samples. The term “blood glucose” remains a prominent feature to describe the state of glycemia in patients with diabetes, whether as a fasting value, during a glucose tolerance test, or in monitoring glucose values to determine the insulin dose. Measurements of glucose in venous whole blood, capillary whole blood, or plasma still define diabetes mellitus by WHO criteria (1), with the American Diabetes Association (ADA) referring only to concentrations in plasma (2). Modern applications of glucose assays practically diverge in the diagnosis vs monitoring of treatment(s) of diabetes. Thus, diagnosis is best made in a certified laboratory with the measurement of glucose in plasma after a fast of at least 8 h (3). The benefits of relating closely monitored glucose concentrations to treatment decisions have become feasible and practical with the availability of small devices capable of measuring with precision and accuracy glucose from …

The neurobiology of zinc in health and disease

The use of zinc in medicinal skin cream was mentioned in Egyptian papyri from 2000 BC (for example, the Smith Papyrus), and zinc has apparently been used fairly steadily throughout Roman and modern times (for example, as the American lotion named for its zinc ore, 'Calamine'). It is, therefore, somewhat ironic that zinc is a relatively late addition to the pantheon of signal ions in biology and medicine. However, the number of biological functions, health implications and pharmacological targets that are emerging for zinc indicate that it might turn out to be 'the calcium of the twenty-first century'.

The history and evolution of pessaries for pelvic organ prolapse

The use of pessaries for the treatment of genital prolapse dates back prior to the days of Hippocrates and their use has been documented in early Egyptian papyruses. Throughout the centuries remedies such as honey, hot oil, wine and fumes have been used as treatment. Mechanical methods included succussion and leg binding. Pomegranates were also common remedies. In the middle ages, linen and cotton wool soaked in many different potions were used. As new materials were discovered, pessaries evolved and began to resemble those used today. Cork and brass were soon replaced with rubber. Modern day pessaries are made of non-reactive silicone and come in various designs and sizes to suit each individual. Pessaries can be used as an interim measure for women who wish to complete childbearing or women awaiting surgery. It can also be used as a permanent measure for women who are unsuitable for surgery. It remains to be established whether the use of modern pessaries over prolonged periods of time can prevent progression of or even cure, prolapse.

Endogenous Zinc in Neurological Diseases

The use of zinc in medicinal skin cream was mentioned in Egyptian papyri from 2000 BC (for example, the Smith Papyrus), and zinc has apparently been used fairly steadily throughout Roman and modern times (for example, as the American lotion named for its zinc ore, 'Calamine'). It is, therefore, somewhat ironic that zinc is a relatively late addition to the pantheon of signal ions in biology and medicine. However, the number of biological functions, health implications and pharmacological targets that are emerging for zinc indicate that it might turn out to be 'the calcium of the twenty-first century'. Here neurobiological roles of endogenous zinc is summarized.

Emergence of the concept of endocrine function and endocrinology

Emergence of the concept of endocrine function and endocrinology

The Occurrence and Alteration of Realgar on Ancient Egyptian Papyri

The light-fading of realgar and its polymorphs is reviewed. A variety of realgar paints were prepared using gum arabic as a binder and the hue was seen to vary with the extent of grinding. Raman spectroscopy and colorimetry were used to follow the fading of realgar paint. The particles changed to pararealgar via χ-realgar. The initial colour change from orange to yellow was very fast, the smallest particles being most light-sensitive. Subsequently the yellow became fainter as arsenolite was formed. Realgar was found to dissolve in hot Meltmount and, on cooling, crystallized as β-realgar. Realgar and its alteration products have been found on a wide range of papyri in the British Museum. One papyrus roll had been cut into many sheets, enabling a study of realgar and orpiment paints which had been exposed to various amounts of natural light. Both orpiment and realgar faded to arsenolite; the latter has been seen on papyri as transparent, colourless octahedral crystals. Partly faded areas contained realgar, pararealgar and χ-realgar. On one sheet, haematite appeared to have been used as a replacement for realgar.

Amelia Hertz's Fleur-De-Lys

A melia Hertz (1879-1942), if remembered at all today, is better known as a historian and scholar than as a playwright. She came from a progressive Jewish family. Her father Maximilian was a doctor of medicine and co-founder with Janusz Korczak of the orphanage Nasz Dom. Because women, especially of Jewish origin, were at that time a rarity at Polish universities, Amelia studied abroad: mathematics, Egyptology, and chemistry in Heidelberg and Berlin (doctorate in 1904), literature in Leipzig and Monachium, and in Paris at the School of Archeology of the Louvre from which she graduated in 1913. She became an outstanding scholar of ancient history and civilization, especially Near Eastern, and was recognized for her pioneering articles in scholarly journals in France, Germany, Italy, England, and Canada. She received honors and awards for her work, including a medal of distinction from the Sorbonne for deciphering a difficult Egyptian papyrus. She died in the notorious Gestapo prison Pawiak in Warsaw in 1942, a victim of the Nazis.

Application of photo-detection to art and archaeology at the C2RMF

The Centre for research and restoration of the museums of France (C2RMF), located in the Louvre palace in Paris routinely uses photodetector-based techniques for the study of objects of cultural heritage. Among these methods, the ion beam analysis techniques (IBA) provided by the 2-MV electrostatic accelerator “AGLAE” installed in the C2RMF have the specific qualities required for the study of these valuable objects. Indeed, PIXE and PIGE are non-destructive, non-invasive, rapid and sensitive tools for the determination of the chemical composition. Their use enables to answer three major questions in the field of Art and Archaeology: (1) identification of the material, (2) determination of the provenance, and (3) study of surface modification (ageing, alteration). Applications of radiation detectors are exemplified through case studies performed at the Centre: the identification of the pigments used on an Egyptian papyrus, the provenance of gemstones set on ancient jewels and the indirect dating of archaeological flints. New trends in the use of photo-detectors in Art and Archaeology are presented.

Early modern childbirth.

THIS 16TH-CENTURY WOODCUT shows a pregnant woman sitting in a birthing chair, attended by 3 women, at least 1 of whom (seated, at left) is a midwife. This image was published in Ein schon lustig Trostbuchle von den Empfengknussen und Geburten der Menschen (A Very Cheerful Booklet of Encouragement Concerning the Conception and Birth of Man) in 1554.1 The book was written by Jacob Rueff (1500–1558), a surgeon and obstetrician in Zurich. Rueff was responsible for the instruction and examination of midwives in Zurich and, indeed, had copies of his book sent to all the midwives in the region. Much of Rueff’s book is essentially copied from Eucharius Rosslin’s Der Swangern Frauwen und Hebammen Rosegarten (The Rose Garden for Pregnant Women and Midwives), 1513, the first printed work dealing exclusively with obstetrics—and also intended as an instruction guide for midwives.2 In the later work, Rueff added some new material from his own experiences and placed more emphasis on the use of instruments as aids to childbirth. In this image, for example, one can see the obstetrical instruments and equipment on the table behind the women, whereas in Rosslin’s almost identical image, the background is plain. Rueff advocated new obstetrical instruments such as the toothed duck beak forceps and the use of internal and external manipulation for footling (feet first) presentations. Some version of the birthing stool or chair had been used for millennia, there being evidence of its use in Egyptian papyri and the Old Testament.3,4 The chair shown here incorporates certain early modern technical innovations, such as the sloping back that allows the birthing woman to recline slightly during contractions. One scholar even argues that this birthing chair was itself a technical innovation inspired by male professionals as a way to gain control over the birthing process and to displace earlier practices in which pregnant women sat on the laps of their birth attendants.5 As male midwives and obstetrical attendants gradually wrested control of the birth process from female midwives and from women themselves, the birthing chairs would be replaced by flat beds, these being more convenient to the person in charge of the “delivery.” Birthing chairs are now making something of a comeback in modern obstetrics as case– control studies are finding that their use may reduce the pain of childbirth, diminish perineal trauma, decrease the need for episiotomies, and increase the mother’s satisfaction with her birthing experience.6–9

Micro-PIXE analysis of an ancient Egyptian papyrus: Identification of pigments used for the “Book of the Dead”

This paper reports a study of colours and inks of an ancient Egyptian papyrus using an external proton microprobe in PIXE mode. Representing the Book of the Dead, this papyrus is dated from the 19th dynasty, New Kingdom (c.1295–1186 BC). Elemental maps were obtained by moving the papyrus under a fixed focused external beam using a motorised support. The maps were compared to photographic pictures taken in visible light. Inks used in the hieroglyph text appeared to be based on carbon (black) and iron oxide (red). Coloured drawings illustrating the text showed a wider palette: hematite, ochre, orpiment, Egyptian blue, verdigris. Most intriguing was the observation in several parts of the drawing of a whitish pigment containing strontium. Deposits of strontium-rich minerals (e.g. strontianite, celestite) have been identified in Egypt. The exact nature and the archaeological implications of this pigment have still to be determined. Finally, fine powder and coarse grains of arsenic oxide were observed, probably remaining from an early preservation treatment against insect attacks after excavation.

The gilded page: the history and technique of manuscript gilding

This book traces the history of gilding from ancient Egypt and Babylon through Rome, the Near East, Medieval and Renaissance Europe, and finally into the modern-day studio. This revised edition has added colour plates and new information on ancient Egyptian papyrus gilding. This is a must-have book for book artists and illuminators, explaining in detail the historical and modern techniques of manuscript gilding, along with recipes and helpful hints. Step-by-step methods of applying and burnishing gold are described in a sensible and easy-to-understand way. Learn about the tools, methods, and materials employed in flat, raised, and pattern gilding for manuscripts and paintings, along with historical mordants such as Gesso Sottile, Gum Ammoniac, Gum Arabic, and Garlic Juice; and modern mordants such as Acrylic Gesso and White Glue. This work is the most complete source available for detailed information on this ancient, obscure, and highly-prized craft. The Gilded Page is a valuable resource for conservationists and historians, as well as any artists interested in this ancient art form.

Comparative pigment analysis of six modern Egyptian papyri and an authentic one of the 13th century BC by Raman microscopy and other techniques

Six Egyptian papyri, supposedly dating to different periods from the 13th to the 1st centuries BC and brought to London for auction, have been analysed by Raman microscopy in order to try to authenticate them. Complementary studies by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDX), and polarized light microscopy (PLM) have also been carried out in some cases. The following pigments were detected: phthalocyanine blue, phthalocyanine green, chalk, anatase (white), Prussian blue, a Hansa yellow, ultramarine blue, iron(III) oxide and two β-naphthol reds. Most of the pigments on the papyri were thus recognized to be modern, their syntheses or refinement processes not being known to the ancient Egyptians. The above results have been compared with those obtained from the analysis of an authentic Egyptian papyrus belonging to the Petrie Museum and dating from the 13th century BC. This papyrus had recently been conserved by the British Museum and placed under glass. The Raman study, which was performed without removal of the glass, revealed the presence of pararealgar (yellow), which is a photodegradation product of realgar (red). Carbon and orpiment were also present on this papyrus, and possibly iron(III) oxide, malachite or Egyptian green, and Egyptian blue, but no modern pigments. These results are consistent with the authenticity of this papyrus, and highlight a convenient and effective method by which ancient and modern papyri may be distinguished. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Comparative pigment analysis of six modern Egyptian papyri and an authentic one of the 13th centuryBC by Raman microscopy and other techniques

Six Egyptian papyri, supposedly dating to different periods from the 13th to the 1st centuries BC and brought to London for auction, have been analysed by Raman microscopy in order to try to authenticate them. Complementary studies by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDX), and polarized light microscopy (PLM) have also been carried out in some cases. The following pigments were detected: phthalocyanine blue, phthalocyanine green, chalk, anatase (white), Prussian blue, a Hansa yellow, ultramarine blue, iron(III) oxide and two β-naphthol reds. Most of the pigments on the papyri were thus recognized to be modern, their syntheses or refinement processes not being known to the ancient Egyptians. The above results have been compared with those obtained from the analysis of an authentic Egyptian papyrus belonging to the Petrie Museum and dating from the 13th century BC. This papyrus had recently been conserved by the British Museum and placed under glass. The Raman study, which was performed without removal of the glass, revealed the presence of pararealgar (yellow), which is a photodegradation product of realgar (red). Carbon and orpiment were also present on this papyrus, and possibly iron(III) oxide, malachite or Egyptian green, and Egyptian blue, but no modern pigments. These results are consistent with the authenticity of this papyrus, and highlight a convenient and effective method by which ancient and modern papyri may be distinguished. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Pain and new cultural diseases.

The purpose of this article is to recount a piece of medical history, even though it has been told many times before. Everyone has heard about patients who visit their doctors time and again with physical complaints without the physician being able to find an adequate organic cause. The oldest descriptions of this illness can be found on ancient Egyptian papyrus rolls, dating back to about the year 1900 BC (Shorter F. A history of psychosomatic illness in the modern era. New York: Macmillan; 1992). The need to tell these stories repeatedly can be attributed to the chameleonic nature of the illness which is difficult to spot because of its changing expression, which one could say takes on the appearance of its surroundings. Throughout history, humans have had the capacity to develop symptoms almost identical with the real diseases of the time. The term somatize is often used descriptively about patients with physical complaints without any recognizable organic basis. Shorter proposes that mankind has a shared "symptom-pool" containing all existing symptoms. Patients who convert their mental state into bodily symptoms--somatization--take their symptoms from this symptom-pool, albeit it is possible for new symptoms to emerge. For centuries patients have presented with sensory symptoms such as paresthesias. In the 19th century patients began to exhibit motorial symptoms with attacks of hysteria. According to Shorte's theory, this multitude of manifestations should be perceived as culturally determined or as different expressions of the same underlying phenomenon.