Egg Shell Breakage Research Articles

Common cuckoo eggs are more resistant to puncture by the host

The puncture resistance hypothesis suggests that thick-shelled eggs of parasitic birds can resist puncture-ejection by the host. However, few experiments have yet been conducted to test this hypothesis in terms of natural host behavior (e.g., pecking at foreign eggs). To explore whether the eggshells of common cuckoos (Cuculus canorus) are resistant to puncture-ejection by their common hosts, Oriental reed warblers (Acrocephalus orientalis), we designed experiments to investigate if and how breeding Oriental reed warblers peck at foreign eggs that includes common cuckoo, Oriental reed warbler and budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) eggs. The results showed that, given the same frequency of egg pecking, the probability of eggshell breakage was 87.5% for eggs of the Oriental reed warbler and 0% for eggs of the common cuckoo, with a significant difference (P = 0.001, Fisher's exact test). Our study shows clearly that common cuckoos' eggshells are less susceptible to puncture-ejection than those of Oriental reed warblers and budgerigars. This indicates that the eggshells of common cuckoos can resist host Oriental reed warblers' puncture-ejection, supporting the puncture resistance hypothesis.

The effects of ozone, ultrasound and coating with shellac and lysozyme–chitosan on fresh egg during storage at ambient temperature. Part II: microbial quality, eggshell breaking strength and FT‐NIR spectral analysis

SummaryThis research aims to investigate and compare the effect of different treatments, including gaseous ozone (6‐ppm/4‐min), ultrasound (450 W/4‐min), and coatings of shellac and lysozyme–chitosan (L–C), on fresh eggs during the storage for six weeks at ambient temperature. The internal quality analysis was performed in Part I. In Part II, the bacterial qualities, Fourier transform near‐infrared (FT‐NIR) spectral image and eggshell breaking strength were monitored. Ozone and ultrasound helped to maintain bacterial quality, but had an adverse effect on shell strength. Coated eggs had the highest value of strength (shellac: 3.63 ± 0.54 kgf; L–C: 3.56 ± 0.54 kgf) and ultrasound‐treated eggs had the lowest strength (3.13 ± 0.78 kgf) in egg top. FT‐NIR measurement showed that all treatments resulted in a decrease in absorption bands throughout storage. Overall, among the treatments investigated, the coatings were the best for enhancing shelf life with higher strength in eggshell breakage, while the ozone and ultrasound only helped to keep the microbial quality and enhance the shelf life.

Model comparison to evaluate a shell quality bio-complex in layer hens

Reducing the incidence of egg shell breakage is an important selection goal in egg layer hens breeding. Breaking strength provides an indicator of static shell resistance correlated with shell thickness. Acoustic egg tests combine shell's resonance profile with egg mass to calculate dynamic stiffness (KDyn) a quantitative indicator of integral shell resistance, and a novel direct detection of both cracks and micro-cracks (MCr) making it possible for use in selection programs aiming improvement of shell quality. A shell quality bio-complex was defined to improve overall shell quality, including: breaking strength at equator (BSe) and poles (BSp), KDyn, and MCr, on multiple eggs/hen-age. A total of 81,667; 101,113; and 72,462 records from 4 generations of three pure lines were evaluated. Two models were tested in the brown-egg line: I) four-trait linear repeatability model and II) three-trait linear (BS, KDyn)-threshold (MCr) in the three lines. Models were implemented with AIREMLF90 and THRGIBBS1F90. Heritability and repeatability (Model I) estimates were: h2 = 0.14, 0.18, 0.33, and 0.02; r = 0.16, 0.28, 0.43, and 0.03 for BSe, BSp, KDyn, and MCr, respectively. Corresponding values in White Plymouth Rock were h2 = 0.14, 0.17, 0.33, and 0.02; r = 0.21, 0.33, 0.44, and 0.04, and in White Leghorn were h2 = 0.14, 0.23, 0.36, and 0.02; r = 0.24, 0.38, 0.52, and 0.02. Genetic correlations between BSe and BSp were between 0.51 and 0.68. The BS traits were moderately correlated with KDyn (+0.23 to +0.51), and tended to be negatively correlated with MCr. KDyn, and MCr (-0.46 to -0.62). Model II had similar results; except for increased h2 = 0.06 and r = 0.09 for MCr. Results indicate that BSe and BSp are different traits; while incidence of MCr is low in heritable but showed negative genetic correlations with the other traits. This makes MCr unsuitable for direct selection; but favors indirect selection against MCr via BSe, BSp, and KDyn for a holistic selection to improve shell quality, in particular to achieve the ultimate goal, reduction of egg breakage.

Eggshell quality: a comparison between Fayoumi, Gimieizah and Brown Hy-Line strains for mechanical properties and ultrastructure of their eggshells

This experiment was designed to study the relationship between mechanical properties and ultrastructure of three genetic groups (Fayoumi, Gimieizah and Brown Hy-Line strains). To assess eggshell mechanical parameters a total of 120 eggs from each strain was used. This study suggested predicting the mechanical properties and ultrastructure of eggshells when egg weight was equal for the three strains (39.8 g). There was a significant difference among strains for shell thickness, eggshell breaking strength and stiffness, with the Fayoumi eggshells recording the highest values compared with other strains. The palisade layer of Gimieizah and Brown Hy-Line eggshells was thinner than that of Fayoumi eggshells. There were significant correlations between palisade length and breaking strength (0.51), shell thickness (0.89) and stiffness (0.48); however, the length of the palisade layer was significantly negatively correlated with elasticity (–0.85). The Fayoumi (local Egyptian strain) showed higher resistance for eggshell breakage than the Hy-Line commercial strain due to their longer palisade layer noting that there were no significant differences in egg weight between the two. The length of the palisade layer plays an important role in eggshell strength, so it is of interest to include these parameters in selection programs aimed to improve eggshell strength. However, a negative correlation between length of palisade layer and elasticity prevented improvement of these two parameters.

Critical points on egg production: causes, importance and incidence of eggshell breakage and defects

The occurrence of broken eggs directly depends on the quality of the shell. It is important to consider that the problem of broken eggs is not due to a single factor but a combination of factors. Shell defects, irregularities in shell shape, texture and surface are commonly observed during a regular egg laying cycle and the causes are varied. The incidence of downgraded eggs still represents an important source of economic loss for the egg industry due to products damage and need for further processing. It is possible to obtain significant reduction in the number of eggs lost due to the inferior quality of the shell attempting to an adequate nutrition, disease control, good management practices, and use of genetic lines with higher quality eggshell traits.

Post-hatch oral estrogen exposure reduces oviduct and egg mass and alters nest-building behavior in adult zebra finches ( Taeniopygia guttata)

In addition to well recognized effects on the zebra finch song system, we previously showed that post-hatch oral estrogen and xenoestrogen exposure disrupts reproduction by increasing eggshell breakage in females and decreasing fertility in males. Here we show that post-hatch exposure to estradiol benzoate (by oral gavage on days 5 to 11) at a 100 nmol EB per g body mass dose (EB100) also reduces adult oviduct mass. Further, EB100 and doses two orders of magnitude lower (EB10, EB1) reduce egg mass and length. Similar to the induction of song-control nuclei in females, dosing with EB10 and EB100 increased and masculinized another highly differentiated behavior: nest-building. Zebra finches orally exposed as chicks were observed during reproductive trials in communal breeding cages for 4 or 6weeks duration. EB100 males and females and EB10 males showed increased nest-building behaviors. Further, EB10 and EB100 birds had larger nests than canola oil-treated controls, and EB100 birds had faster rates of nest-building than controls, while EB1 birds had significantly slower rates of nest-building than controls. Additionally, EB100 males and females also showed an increased preference for a coarser male-typical nest-building material (jute) over a finer, female-typical material (wool), suggesting a masculinization of nest-building behavior at the higher doses. The change in zebra finch nest-building behavior induced by early EB exposure suggests that nest size and quality, in addition to egg mass and length, may provide new endpoints for assessing avian exposure to xeno- and phyto-estrogens in wild birds.

Erratum: Chitosan coating minimises eggshell breakage and improves egg quality Cengiz Caner, Özge Cansiz. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture

Erratum: Chitosan coating minimises eggshell breakage and improves egg quality Cengiz Caner, Özge Cansiz. <i>Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture</i>

Chitosan coating minimises eggshell breakage and improves egg quality

AbstractThe interior quality of eggs, shell impact strength, and consumer perception of eggs coated with chitosan containing an organic acid (acetic, lactic and propionic) were evaluated. Uncoated eggs had the highest albumen pH and lowest albumen viscosity. The viscosity of eggs coated with chitosan and lactic or propionic acids were the highest. Chitosan coating also improved shell strength with chitosan + lactic acid being the best coating in this regard. The colour of shell and yolk as measured by lightness (L*), a*, b*, chroma and hue of coated and uncoated eggs were not significantly different but the difference was detected in the colour of albumen, which is an effective indication of freshness and egg quality. Based on sensory evaluation, consumers could not differentiate coated eggs from uncoated eggs; thus the general acceptability of the coated eggs was the same as uncoated eggs. This study shows a great potential of using chitosan and lactic acid mixture as a coating material for egg coating to extend the shelf life. It has no effect on consumer acceptability of the product. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry

Relationship between eggshell strength and keratan sulfate of eggshell membranes

Eggshell strength is an important factor in an effort to minimize eggshell breakage, which is a significant problem in the egg production industry. In the current study, we isolated and quantified the specific glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) from the calcified eggshell and shell membranes, which are related to eggshell strength. Our data suggest that GAGs exist in calcified eggshell may influence morphology of shell but do not affect on increase of shell amount while GAGs of shell membranes are maybe highly associated with shell strength with an increase of shell weight. Shell strength showed a strong correlation with the content of GAGs (r=0.942, p<0.0005) and a weak relationship with uronic acid content (r=0.564, p=0.056) in shell membranes. Monosaccharides in shell membranes were determined by Bio-LC analysis for the identification of any specific GAGs related with shell strength. It indicates that the galactose content as a component of keratan sulfate (KS) has a significant correlation with eggshell strength (r=0.985, p<0.0005). These results suggest that eggshell strength is proportional to the KS content of eggshell membranes with an increase of eggshell weight.

Monitoring of Eggshell Breakage and Eggshell Strength in Different Production Chains of Consumption Eggs

We first tried to monitor the critical points for eggshell breakage in different logistic chains. Second, we examined whether there was a difference in eggshell strength among eggs produced in different housing systems. Finally, we developed a model to investigate the relation between eggshell strength and the likelihood of an egg cracking during handling and grading. Four logistic chains with different housing systems (battery cages, furnished cages, aviary, and free-range), all housing Bovans Goldline chickens in their mid-lay (45 wk), were compared. In every chain, a randomized set of 1,500 eggs was sampled, and the strength was defined. At every critical point in every logistic chain, the eggs were reexamined for breakage. The classic and furnished cage systems showed the highest percentage of breakage directly at point of lay (6.73 and 10.72%), whereas the other systems showed lower breakage (1.94% in the aviary and 1.99% in the free-range system). Further, in the logistic chain, grading and packing of the eggs generated the second highest percentage of breakage (from 1.50 to 2.65%). Breakage due to transportation ranged from 0.16 to 2.65%. There was a significant difference among the eggshell strength (shell stiffness and damping ratio) of eggs from chickens in different housing systems, showing eggs from chickens in the aviary system to be stronger than cage eggs (classic and furnished) and free-range eggs to be weaker than the other eggs. A significant correlation was found between eggshell strength and the likelihood of breakage in the production chains. In conclusion, it was first shown that, besides the laying, packing of the eggs is a critical point in the logistic chain of consumption eggs; second, the strength of the eggs in the different housing systems differed, and, finally, the eggshell stiffness and damping ratio of consumption eggs are an acceptable measure for rapid eggshell quality assessment and could provide a good predictive value for eggshell breakage in all types of table egg production chains.

Measuring the eggshell strength of 6 different genetic strains of laying hens: Techniques and comparisons

1. Eggshell quality was compared in 6 different strains of laying hens. Three strains were commercial; the three others were experimental. 2. Four different variables describing the strength of eggshells were investigated. Three of them were the classical ones eggshell thickness, shell stiffness measured during quasi-static compression and breaking force. Dynamic stiffness, introduced by Coucke (Ph.D. Thesis, KU Leuven, 1998), was the 4th. The fact that this measurement is dynamic could be helpful in genetic selection for eggshell breakage, because forces applied to the egg in practice are dynamic, rather than static. 3. Hisex White hens produce eggs with the strongest eggshell, in terms of all 4 eggshell variables. However, their shell quality in terms of breaking force did not remain constant over the laying period, unlike 4 other strains. 4. All strains showed a decline in quasi-static stiffness over time. 5. The eggshell thickness of three strains showed a decline over time. 6. Dynamic stiffness remained constant or improved in all strain. 7. All variables describing the mechanical eggshell strength gave different information.

Edible Film Coating to Minimize Eggshell Breakage and Reduce Post‐Wash Bacterial Contamination Measured by Dye Penetration in Eggs

ABSTRACT: The mechanical and bacterial barrier properties of washed (tap water, sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl) noncoated eggs and eggs coated with soy protein isolate (SPI), whey protein isolate (WPI), carboxylmethyl cellulose (CMC), or wheat gluten (WG) were evaluated. All coated eggshells showed greater puncture strength than those of noncoated eggs. The film‐coated eggs reduced post‐wash bacterial penetration as measured by dye penetration method. WPI coating completely inhibited blue dye penetration on average. These results suggest that WPI coatings can be used to reduce breakage of eggshell and egg microbial contamination.

A fluid-filled spherical shell model of the thermo-elastic behaviour of avian eggs

Egg shell breakage during hot water washing results from the differences in the volumetric expansion characteristics of the shell and its contents. Upon heating, the yolk and albumen expand while the enclosed volume of a hollow egg shell has an anomolous shrinkage response. An incompressible liquid and compressible gas-filled elastic, spherical shell model is developed to examine the thermoelastic response to hot water washing. Two bounding cases of a shell which is (1) completely impervious and (2) completely porous to air cell leakage are considered. Egg shell strength is known to decrease with increasing temperature. When combined with internal pressures induced by the washing process, a temporary, but appreciable reduction in the shell's capacity to withstand mechanical loads is predicted. Increases in shell porosity, air cell volume and egg shell size decrease the thermally produced mechanical stress. On the other hand, shell thickness does not appreciably influence the thermally induced stress.

Methods and Factors That Affect the Measurement of Egg Shell Quality ,

Egg shell breakage accounts for a loss of 7 to 8% of the total eggs laid. Because shell breakage is related to egg shell strength, numerous methods have been developed to measure shell strength in relation to egg breakage. These methods can be divided into those that measure shell strength indirectly and those that measure directly. Egg specific gravity, nondestructive deformation, and beta backscatter are examples of indirect methods and quasi-static compression fracture, impact fracture, and puncture force are examples of direct measurements. A major advantage with indirect methods is that multiple measurements of shell strength may be taken on the same egg and the egg may be subsequently hatched, whereas with the direct methods the shell is fractured during the measurement. Factors known to influence the measurement of shell strength include the temperature of eggs, the length of time between oviposition and measurements, the sequence in which indirect measurements are taken, the compression rate and response time of recording equipment used to measure deformation, compression fracture and puncture force, the configuration and roughness of the surfaces of the measuring equipment that contact the egg shell, the deformation within the measuring equipment, and possibly the moisture content of the shell. Details of these factors should be reported with shell strength data. In general, there is a moderate relationship (r<.75) between data from indirect and direct shell strength measurements. There is a curvilinear relationship between shell strength and egg shell breakage. Further research is required to determine which of die indirect or direct methods best predict shell breakage under field conditions and to develop a model that will explain the strength of the hen's egg shell.

Incidence, Cause, and Prevention of Egg Shell Breakage in Commercial Production

Estimates for the incidence of broken eggs in commercial production range from 6 to 8% of all eggs produced. This breakage can be categorized into a number of stages, and the incidence at these stages varies. Attempts to decrease the incidence of shell breakage should be approached by studying the underlying factors that contribute to breakage under a specific situation. The factors discussed include: 1) the physiology of the bird, with emphasis on the interval between and time of oviposition, rate of shell deposition, uterine environment, and metabolism; 2) egg characteristics, with emphasis on egg shape, color, membrane, and deformities of the shell; 3) behavior, with emphasis on stance and flightiness; 4) housing equipment; 5) management; 6) environment, with emphasis on environmental temperature; 7) nutrition, with emphasis on Ca, phase feeding, and vitamin D; and 8) age and its relationship with increasing egg size and 9) genetic variation.

Introduction

The Symposium on Egg Shell Quality was presented August 5, 1981, at the Poultry Science Association meeting in Vancouver, British Columbia. Cochairman Joe Soares of the University of Maryland presided. Plans for this symposium were initiated by the participants in Regional Project S-131 “Egg Shell Quality in Avian Species” and supported by the program committee of the Poultry Science Association.The objectives of the symposium were to provide an assessment of the problem of egg shell breakage in commercial channels and to provide recent information on the physical, biochemical, and genetic advances in research on the egg shell. The presentations were given by scientists currently engaged in research and who have contributed significant knowledge about these topics.Ken Washburn of the University of Georgia described the incidence, cause, and prevention of egg breakage in commercial channels. There is ample evidence of the magnitude of the problem. The monetary loss to .

The Effect of Egg Carton and Case Type on Egg Shell Damage

Studies were conducted to evaluate the protection against egg shell breakage offered by six types of commercially available one dozen egg cartons and to evaluate, in addition, three case types: 15 dozen wire, 24 dozen wire, and 30 dozen cardboard. Two trials were conducted in cooperation with a Texas commercial egg processing plant who supplied the eggs and test facility. Eggs were hand candled to remove damaged eggs, packed in cartons and cases, and subjected to damage by vertical drop of 12 in. Hand candling was used to determine the extent of damage.The 30 dozen cardboard case afforded the greatest degree of protection (7.87% shell damage) and the 24 dozen wire case offered the least protection (20.75% shell damage). Comparison of the six carton types (3 molded pulp, 3 plastic foam) indicated that the greatest protection was offered by two molded pulp varieties (9.00 and 9.36% shell damage) and the least protection was afforded by one molded pulp and two plastic foam varieties (17.21, 16.30, and 20.79% damage, respectively). The carton types that offered the greatest protection possessed strong support in the center of the carton, which tended to resist damage from the downward impact utilized in this test.

Insecticides: Effect on drug metabolism

The effects of chlorinated organic insecticides on the half‐life and rate of elimination of a variety of drugs were studied in laboratory animals; observations were made in humans occupationally exposed and in birds environmentally exposed to pesticides. Species differences are reported depending on the insecticide tested: DDT decreased hexobarbital sleep time of rats but had no effect in mice, which did respond similarly when treated with chlordane. All isomers of DDT as well as their metabolites were potent inducers of hepatic microsomal drug‐metabolizing enzymes in rats. In treated dogs, plasma elimination half‐life of hexobarbital was shortened, but the half‐life of pentobarbital was lengthened. Exterminators exposed to a mixture of chlorinated organic pesticides, showed significantly shorter antipyrine plasma elimination half‐lives as contrasted to office personnel from the same company. Similar observations were made on workers in a DDT factory, with decreasing plasma half‐lives of phenylbutazone as compared with findings in a control group. Induction of mixed Junction oxidase (MFO) activity by chlorinated insecticides was associated with frequency of eggshell breakage and decreased eggshell weight in breeding birds, e.g., falcon, sparrow hawks, and others with a declining population. It was postulated that the eggshell defects resulted from altered metabolism due to excess steroid inactivation secondary to induction of MFO activity.

Egg shell characteristics and incidence of shell breakage for grey herons Ardea cinerea exposed to environmental pollutants

Egg shell characteristics and incidences of shell breakage have been studied for the grey heron Ardea cinerea at several colonies in eastern England. Eggs collected in the late 1960s and in the 1970s had shells which were significantly thinner than shells collected before 1946. For a sample taken in 1973, shell thickness, shell strength, mammillary layer thickness and palisade layer thickness were all inversely related to the concentration of pp'-DDE(+ pp'-DDT + pp'-TDE) in the egg contents. Shell thinning was considered to be due to a reduced availability of shell components leading to a depressed rate of shell formation. A separate mechanism resulted in increased mammillae height relative to mammillary layer thickness. For comparison, the structure of other types of thin shells was also examined. Incidence of egg shell breakage was positively related to the residue levels of pp′-DDE or dieldrin in intact eggs. Eggs with shells thinner than 240 μm were unlikely to survive incubation. Since such eggs tend to contain higher-than-average residues, sampling intact eggs leads to a mean egg residue figure that is lower than the real mean for the colony. Measuring shell thickness is suggested as a rapid and economical bioassay of DDE levels. Shell thinning leads to a proportionally greater reduction in shell strength, and breakage of shells less than 240 μm in thickness was probably due to a combination of shell fragility and aberrant behaviour by the brooding adults. Breakage of thicker shells was believed to be mainly due to deliberate destruction. Despite more than half of the pairs breaking their shells during some years, heron populations have not declined overall perhaps because of the ability of this species to lay repeat clutches. There are indications that egg residues of DDE and other organochlorines are decreasing, and shell thickness and the incidence of shell breakage are returning to normal.

The use of selection and strain crossing to reduce egg shell breakage

1. Selection for low egg shell deformation and high egg production was carried out in two White Leghorn strains, M and H, in order to test the feasibility of reducing the incidence of egg breakage without loss in egg production. 2. Selected and control lines were maintained within each strain. 3. After three generations of selection, egg shell deformation was reduced in the M selected line as compared to its control counterpart but this change in deformation was not accompanied by a reduction in egg breakage; however, no reduction in deformation or egg breakage was achieved in the H selected line. 4. Crossing the M and H strains resulted in a reduction of egg breakage in the crosses as compared to the average breakage of the parental strains, suggesting the potential of utilising strain crosses to reduce the incidence of egg shell breakage.