Egalitarian Gender Role Attitudes Research Articles

FEMALE EMPLOYMENT AND THE CHANGE OF GENDER ROLES: THE CONFLICTUAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATION AND ATTITUDES IN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON

This article examines female labour force participation and gender role attitudes from a comparative perspective, using recent survey data from eight countries. It starts with two general hypotheses. The technological-functional hypothesis states that the increase in women's labour force participation is a necessary concomitant of industrialisation, followed sooner or later by a corresponding adaptation of gender role attitudes toward individualistic-egalitarian values. The cultural-institutional hypothesis states that extra-familial work of women and gender role attitudes are both related to historically persistent, general societal values regarding personal individuality and freedom, family and social stratification. Empirical results did not confirm the hypothesis that the higher the employment rate of women in a particular country, the more the population will have egalitarian gender role attitudes. This is exemplified by the two polar cases of Hungary with the highest levels of employment, but most traditional attitudes, and Netherlands with relatively low levels of employment but very modern attitudes. It seems that the actual employment rates of women (as well as an economic motivation of female employment as a contribution to household income) are primarily determined by changing economic circumstances and policies as well as the actual economic situation of women and their family. Gender role attitudes, however, are shaped not only by structural changes due to industrialisation but also by socio-cultural factors, such as the religious heritages of different countries. In this regard, our second hypothesis also obtains empirical support.

The influence of maternal employment on gender role attitudes of men and women

The effects of maternal employment on young adults' gender role attitudes were assessed. A random sample of 111 males and 131 females was surveyed [179 Whites (74.0%), 35 Blacks (14.5%), and 28 “others” (typically Asian-Americans, 11.5%)]. Results varied depending on which gender role attitudes were being examined. With respect to approval of mother working outside the home, only the respondent's age when his or her mother began working was significant. However, this relationship was not found when assessing attitudes about the separate spheres ideology. Thus, it appears that attitudes toward women working depend on whether the respondent's mother worked, whereas beliefs about adult male—female equality do not appear to be as closely related to childhood experiences. Mothers' occupations were unrelated to all of the attitudes examined, as were her children's perceptions of how satisfied she was with her primary work role (employed or nonemployed). Finally, the only significant predictors of gender role attitudes to be discovered were the sex of respondent and attendance at religious services. Females expressed more egalitarian gender role attitudes, and those who reported frequent attendance at religious services were more likely to endorse traditional gender roles.

Evangelicalism, Social Identity, and Gender Attitudes Among Women

Although some scholars have demonstrated that labor force participation leads to more egalitarian gender role attitudes among women, recent research has reported that this relationship is attenuated among evangelical women. This latter study suggested that evangelical women in the labor force retain their traditional gender role attitudes on family roles. This study offers one explanation for this result: Many evangelical women in the labor force retain their identity as homemakers. Moreover, although nonevangelical women who enter the labor force adopt an identity as a working woman, many evangelical women already hold such an identity before they enter the labor force. This suggests that they experience less of a change in their social identity when they enter the labor force, and that the identity of working woman has a different meaning for evangelical women than for nonevangelical women.

More Than a Labor of Love: Gender Roles and Christmas Gift Shopping

Through a field study of 299 men and women, the effect of gender-related variables on Christmas-gift-shopping patterns was explored. Survey results suggest that women are more involved than men in the activity. However, men are likely to be more involved if they hold egalitarian gender-role attitudes. Overall, the study indicates that, while Christmas shopping may be a “labor of love” to some, it is most widely construed as “women's work.”

Gender Roles and Premarital Contraception

This study tests the hypothesis that individuals with more egalitarian gender-role attitudes are more likely to believe that contraceptive responsibility and use should be shared will be more likely to talk about contraception before intercourse and will be more frequent and effective users of contraception than those with traditional attitudes. Data used in this study was gathered in 1973 for a large study of 2 samples; college students (N=856) and non-students (N=511) in a mid-Western city. Gender role attitudes were measured by 12 items representing male and female roles in public and domestic spheres. The results indicate that respondents generally egalitarian in their gender-role attitudes had positive contraceptive attitudes and behavior. Shared contraceptive responsibility was stronger for men than for women. Women with more egalitarian gender-role attitudes were more frequent users of contraception. Likewise traditionally oriented men reported less frequent use and less effective protection. This study has several implications: 1) since egalitarian individuals prefer sharing in contraception efforts should be made to develop a broader range of contraceptives to be used by men and to reduce the long term health risks of contraception; and 2) family planning programs may facilitate couples sharing contraception by involving both partners in the contraception process. Several Planned Parenthood branches have involved men through sex-education classes rap groups self help literature and reproductive health care services; both partners should be encouraged to attend clinics together.