Levels Of Effortful Control Research Articles

Adolescent leadership: Associations with exclusion of others, effortful control, and popularity

Three-year longitudinal and concurrent associations of leadership with overt aggression, exclusion of others, effortful control (EC), popularity, unpopularity, prosocial behavior, and academic achievement were assessed in this study of Indonesian adolescents. Participants were initially assessed in the 10th grade (n = 462, 256 girls; Mage = 15.14, SD = .62) and followed for 2 years. Concurrent analyses revealed that leadership was positively associated with exclusion of others, EC, and popularity and negatively associated with overt aggression at 12th grade. The positive associations between leadership and exclusion of others only emerged for youth with high levels of EC. Positive associations of leadership with academic achievement were found in the longitudinal analyses and concurrent analyses at the 11th and 12th grade and concurrent associations between prosocial behavior and leadership were found each year. These findings reflect Indonesian cultural norms in which leaders are expected to maintain interpersonal harmony and avoid overt conflict.

The Interplay between Socioeconomic Status, Parenting and Temperament Predicts Inhibitory Control at Two Years of Age.

This paper investigates the interplay between environmental factors (socioeconomic status (SES) and parenting) and temperament in the development of inhibitory control (IC) at 2 years of age. We administered to toddlers (n = 59) a delay of gratification task which measures IC in the context of self-regulation. Parents reported their toddlers' temperament, parenting strategies, and SES. We hypothesized that poorer IC would be associated with more reactive temperament, less effortful control, lower SES and inconsistent/coercive parenting practices. Finally, we explored the interaction between temperament, parenting and SES. We found that both coercive parenting and low-SES were negatively correlated to IC at the age of 2 years. Temperamental reactivity was unrelated to IC, whereas temperamental effortful control (EC) was positively associated with IC. Results revealed a moderation effect of EC on the influence of coercive parenting and SES in toddlers' IC. Toddlers from lower SES backgrounds and with lower EC were more affected by inconsistent/coercive parenting practices and showed the poorest IC. In contrast, toddlers exhibiting high and average levels of EC seemed to be protected from the detrimental effect of low-SES and inconsistent/coercive parenting on IC. These results suggest that strengthening toddlers' EC and improving parents' parenting skills might be especially relevant for the development of IC in the context of self-regulation, particularly by preventing self-regulatory problems in children from socioeconomically deprived environments. Future studies with larger samples, focusing on populations from severe socioeconomically deprived environments, or intervention studies will be needed in order to confirm and expand our findings.

A Pilot Trial of a Home-Based Parenting Intervention for High-Risk Infants: Effects on and Moderating Role of Effortful Control

Despite the important developmental outcomes associated with effortful control (EC), there is limited research demonstrating the efficacy of early interventions for improving EC and assessing the extent to which a child’s level of baseline EC impacts the outcome of intervention on externalizing problems. This study aims to fill these gaps in the literature by assessing the efficacy of the Infant Behavior Program (IBP), a parenting intervention for infants with elevated levels of behavior problems, in improving infant EC and the moderating effect of baseline infant EC on intervention outcomes. Participants included 60 high-risk 12- to 15-month-old infants and their mothers. Families were randomized to receive the IBP or standard pediatric primary care. Parent-report measures of infant behavior and compliance were examined at baseline, post-intervention, and 3- and 6-month follow-up assessments. Results showed infants who received the IBP displayed significantly higher levels of EC at the post-intervention assessment compared to infants in the control group. Additionally, moderation analyses showed initial levels of EC moderated the effect of the IBP on externalizing problems and compliance, such that infants with higher levels of baseline EC displayed greater decreases in externalizing problems at post-intervention and greater increases in compliance at the 6-month follow-up. While these findings did not survive a false discovery rate correction, they offer preliminary support for the efficacy of the IBP in improving infants’ EC and highlight the importance of considering EC as a factor associated with early intervention outcomes for externalizing problems.

More to the story than executive function: Effortful control soon after injury predicts long-term functional and social outcomes following pediatric traumatic brain injury in young children.

To examine the impact of early traumatic brain injury (TBI) on effortful control (EC) over time and the relationship of EC and executive functioning (EF) to long-term functional and social outcomes. Parents of children (N = 206, ages 3-7) with moderate-to-severe TBI or orthopedic injuries (OIs) rated EC using the Child Behavior Questionnaire at 1 (pre-injury), 6, 12, and 18 months post-injury. Child functioning and social competence were assessed at 7 years post-injury. Mixed models examined the effects of injury, time since injury, and their interaction on EC. General linear models examined the associations of pre-injury EC and EC at 18 months with long-term functional and social outcomes. Models controlled for EF to assess the unique contribution of EC to outcomes. Children with severe TBI had significantly lower EC than both the OI and moderate TBI groups at each post-injury time point. Both pre-injury and 18-month EC were associated with long-term outcomes. Among those with low EC at baseline, children with moderate and severe TBI had more functional impairment than those with OI; however, no group differences were noted at high levels of EC. EC had main effects on parent-reported social competence that did not vary by injury type. Findings suggest that EC is sensitive to TBI effects and is a unique predictor of functional outcomes, independent of EF. High EC could serve as a protective factor, and as such measures of EC could be used to identify children for more intensive intervention.

The role of Effortful Control in Substance Use Disorders

Background and aim: Temperament and personality traits are important factors underlying the vulnerability for both initiation and continuation of addictive behaviors. In SUDs there is a high comorbidity with mood and anxiety disorders and personality disorders. As there is a growing interest in the possible transdiagnostic role of Effortful Control in both SUDs as in their comorbid disorders the current study therefore investigates the influence of reactive (Behavioral Inhibition System and Behavioral Activation System, BIS/BAS) and regulative (Effortful Control, EC) temperament and their interaction in relation to clinical symptomatology and PDs in adult inpatients with SUD. Methods: The EC, BIS/BAS, SCL-90-R and ADP-IV questionnaires were administered to 841 patients (age between 17 y and 71 y) with a SUD admitted at the treatment unit for addiction of a psychiatric hospital. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses showed that both, clinical symptomatology and PDs were related to low levels of effortful control (EC). Furthermore, cluster C PDs were related to high levels of BIS and low levels of EC; whereas cluster B PDs were related to low levels of EC and high levels of BAS for the narcissistic and histrionic PD. An interaction effect (BIS*EC) was found for the Schizotypal PD, all other interactions (BIS*EC and BAS*EC) were not significant. Discussion: We found that low EC is involved in all clinical symptomatology and PDs in a sample of inpatients with SUDs. Therapeutic interventions aiming at strengthening effortful control can possibly result in better treatment outcomes for both the addiction as the comorbid psychopathologyDisclosureNo significant relationships.

Shyness and Socio-emotional Adjustment Difficulties in Urban Chinese Kindergartners: The Moderating Role of Child Effortful Control

ABSTRACT Research Findings: The goal of the present study was to examine the moderating role of child effortful control (EC) in the relation between shyness and social-emotional adjustment difficulties among young Chinese children. Participants included 195 children (117 boys, 78 girls, Mage = 4.28 years, SD = 0.31) enrolled in 6 classes attending kindergartens, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China. Mothers provided ratings of their children’s temperament (shyness, EC) at Time 1, teachers and mothers rated children’s social-emotional adjustment at Time 2 (one and a half years later). Results from SPSS PROCESS MACRO revealed several significant interaction effects between shyness and EC in the prediction of outcome variables. Follow-up simple slope analyses indicated that among children with higher levels of EC, shyness was negatively related to mother-reported social-emotional adjustment difficulties, while among children with lower levels of EC, shyness was not associated with mother-reported social-emotional adjustment difficulties. However, among children with lower levels of EC, shyness was positively associated with teacher reported social-emotional adjustment difficulties. In contrast, among children with higher levels of EC, shyness was not associated with teacher-reported social-emotional adjustment difficulties. Practice or Policy: The findings provide evidence to suggest that the combination of shyness and EC may contribute to children’s social adjustment, which in turn may promote or attenuate socio-emotional adjustment difficulties.

Reactive and Regulative Temperament in Relation to Clinical Symptomatology and Personality Disorders in Patients with a Substance Use Disorder.

Temperament and personality traits are important factors underlying the vulnerability for both the initiation and continuation of addictive behaviors. We investigated the influence of reactive and regulative temperament and their interaction in relation to clinical symptomatology and personality disorders (PDs) in a sample of 841 inpatients (68.1% males) with a substance use disorder (SUD). To assess reactive temperament we used the Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activation Scales (BISBAS) and to assess regulative temperament we used the Effortful Control Scale. Clinical symptomatology and personality traits were measured by means of the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90) and the Assessment of ADP-IV Personality Disorders (ADP-IV). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that both, clinical symptomatology and PDs were related to low levels of effortful control (EC). None of the two-way interactions (BIS × EC, BAS × EC) however were significantly related to psychopathology. Current findings highlight the role of effortful control (EC) in the expression of psychopathology in an adult sample of inpatients with SUD. Therapeutic interventions aiming at strengthening EC can possibly result in better treatment outcomes for both the addiction and the comorbid psychopathology.

Interactions between child temperament and family environment in relation to school readiness: Diathesis-stress, differential susceptibility, or vantage sensitivity?

Children entering school with lower school readiness are at greater risk of facing adjustment problems in subsequent years. Recently, temperament has emerged as a predictor of school readiness, but whether the readiness of children with different temperament traits are differentially affected by the quality of their family environment remains unknown. This study pertained to the moderating role of children's temperament (negative affectivity, surgency/extraversion, effortful control) in the relationship between family environment (parenting and sociodemographic risk) and two school readiness dimensions (cognitive and socioemotional). We also tested how such interactions corresponded to three theoretical models of person-environment interactions: diathesis-stress, differential susceptibility, and vantage sensitivity. The sample included 98 children (59% boys) at risk due to their poor school readiness at 4.5 years old. Temperament was reported by parents, whereas family characteristics were extracted from a combination of parent reports and observations during a home visit before kindergarten when the children were 4.5 years old. School readiness was both assessed directly with the children and reported by parents at the end of kindergarten (M = 72.5 months; SD = 3.4). Hierarchical multiple linear regressions showed that negative affectivity and surgency/extraversion did not interact with family characteristics to predict children's school readiness. Therefore, enhancing the quality of family environments is likely to improve the school readiness of all at-risk children, regardless of their reactivity. Nonetheless, significant interactions were observed between family characteristics, and effortful control. Support was found for the diathesis-stress model but was insufficient to confirm either differential susceptibility or vantage sensitivity. Because at-risk children appear differentially affected by their family environment as a function of their effortful control level, adjusting preventive interventions to children's regulation capacities may be a useful way to enhance their effectiveness, and children's school readiness.

Information on Covid-19 and Effortful Control Level: Increasing or Decreasing Anxiety?

Anxiety has increased with more information about the COVID-19 outbreak. The COVID-19 information can make people more aware and care about this pandemic. However, it also can make people feel panic and anxious. Emotional induction in the information is referring to how the emotion carried by the information can affect early adult’s anxiety, but the differences in effortful control level that each person has also define the level of anxiety someone experiences. The anxiety level related to effortful control is one dimension of temperament. This study is conducted in concern of the effect of emotional induction in COVID-19 information towards anxiety in high and low effortful control groups. This study used a quantitative method with quasi-experimental research. This study involves 218 early adults in an age range of 20-40 years old. This study used pictures from content information about COVID-19, Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and Effortful Control Questionnaire (ECQ) as the measuring tools. The results of the significance test show p <0.005. This means that there is an effect of emotional induction on anxiety at both high and low effortful control levels. This study shows that emotional induction in the form of COVID-19 information reduces anxiety in the respondent group with a high level of effortful control, but increases anxiety in the respondent group with a low level of effortful control. The effect of COVID-19 information on anxiety based on effortful control in the late adult (over 65 years old) group, in this study cannot be explained.

The role of temperament traits as predictors of depressive symptoms and resilience in adolescents

From the initial sample of 956 adolescents from the Basque Country (Spain), 790 (Mage = 14.56, 49.4% girls) completed at least two waves including Wave 1 (retention rate: 82.6%), analyzing temperament traits as longitudinal predictors of depression and resilience. Positive affectivity (PA) predicted decreased depression and increased resilience, while negative affectivity (NA) had the opposite effect, and effortful control (EC) predicted reduced depression. Results indicated that PA protects adolescents who are low in EC against depression. In contrast, high EC levels worsened the damaging effect of NA on depression. Resilience and depression were bidirectionally associated and mediated the effects of temperament traits. Findings highlight the need to consider the effect of the complex interplays between temperament traits on resilience and depression improvement.

Effortful Control and Prefrontal Cortex Functioning in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An fNIRS Study.

Effortful control (EC) is an important dimension of temperament, but is impaired in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). While EC is associated with the prefrontal cortex (PFC) functioning in typically developing (TD) children, it is unclear whether EC deficits are associated with PFC dysfunction in ASD. This study examines the relationship between EC and PFC activation and connectivity in children with high-functioning ASD. Thirty-nine right-handed children (ASD: n = 20; TD: n = 19) aged 8–12 years were recruited. The EC level was assessed with the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire—Revised (EATQ-R), and PFC functioning, in terms of activation and connectivity during a frontal-sensitive (n-back) task, was assessed using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Children with ASD showed a significant deficit in EC and its related constructs (i.e., executive, and socioemotional functions) compared to TD controls. They also showed significantly increased overall PFC activation and reduced right frontal connectivity during the n-back task. Among children with ASD, the EC level correlated significantly with neither PFC activation nor connectivity; it significantly correlated with social functioning only. This study demonstrated EC deficits and altered PFC functioning in children with ASD, but the exact neural basis of EC deficits remains to be determined.

Longitudinal relations among household chaos, SES, and effortful control in the prediction of language skills in early childhood.

Previous research has shown that home environment plays an important role in children's early language skills. Yet, few researchers have examined the unique role of family-level factors (socioeconomic status [SES], household chaos) on children's learning or focused on the longitudinal processes that might explain their relations to children's early language skills. The goal of this study was to investigate the longitudinal relations from family SES, household chaos, and children's effortful control (EC) to children's language skills during early childhood, controlling for stability of the constructs. At Time (T1 i.e., 30 months), mothers reported family SES and children's vocabulary, and their own linguistic input was assessed during a free-play session with their child. At T1, T2 (i.e., 42 months), and T3 (i.e., 54 months), household chaos was reported by mothers, and children's EC was rated by mothers and nonparental caregivers and observed during a gift-delay task. At T3, children's expressive and receptive language skills were measured with a standard assessment. Path analyses indicated that higher SES predicted higher levels of EC at T2 and language skills at T3, and greater levels of household chaos at T2 predicted poorer EC and language skills a year later, even when controlling for stability of the constructs. Results indicated that T2 EC partially mediated the relations between SES and T3 language skills. Findings from this study can be used to identify key factors for early learning and perhaps inform programs designed to support families and young children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Interaction Effect of Empathy and Effortful Control on Preschoolers’ Prosocial Behavior: Differences Between 4 and 5-Year-Olds

Objectives To examine the interaction effect of empathy and effortful control on prosocial behavior among Korean preschoolers. Methods The participants of this study were 167 (82 boys, 85 girls) 4 and 5-year-olds from preschools in Seoul Province. Prosocial behavior was evaluated based on teachers’ reports. The level of empathy was measured by a task in which the children responded to the researcher’s questions and effortful control was assessed by behavioral tasks administered by the researcher. The data were preliminarily analyzed by t-tests and Pearson’s correlation analyses. The interaction effect of empathy and effortful control was analyzed with the SPSS 24.0 PROCESS MACRO. Results First, the empathy and effortful control scores of the 5-year-olds were higher than those of the 4-year-olds, whereas there was no age difference in prosocial behavior. Second, in both 4 and 5 year-olds, empathy and effortful control were positively associated with prosocial behavior. Additionally, only for the 5-year-olds, girls demonstrated more prosocial behavior than boys. Third, for explaining the variance in prosocial behavior, there was a main effect of empathy for the 4-year-olds and a main effect of effortful control for the 5-year-olds. Finally, the interaction effect of empathy and effortful control on prosocial behavior was significant only for the 5-year-olds. Conclusion The results of this study suggest that as children grow older, empathy contributes to increased prosocial behavior, especially when the level of effortful control is adequate. Keywords: prosocial behavior, empathy, effortful control, age difference

Temperament, executive function, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adolescents: The mediating role of effortful control

ABSTRACTIntroduction: Temperament dimensions may be related to executive functions (EF) and may be involved in the expression and maintenance of symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The current study aimed to assess whether effortful control (EC) mediates the relationship between EF and inattentive symptoms, and whether surgency (S) and negative affectivity (NA) mediate the relationships between EF and hyperactive–impulsive ADHD symptoms in adolescents.Method: Working individually, participants aged between 12 and 16 years (N = 118; 75 with ADHD) performed tests of cognitive EF (working memory, planning, flexibility, and inhibition), and parents and teachers completed a multi-informant assessment focusing on measures of ADHD symptoms and temperament dimensions (EC, S, and NA).Results: There were significant differences between ADHD and control participants in EF and temperament dimensions. ADHD participants had lower scores than controls in working memory, planning, and inhibition EF; they also had lower scores in EC and higher scores in S and NA. Structural equation modeling indicated differential associations between EC, S, and NA temperament dimensions, and working memory, planning and inhibition EF, and ADHD symptoms. Mediation analysis suggested that EF exerted indirect effects on the inattentive and hyperactive–impulsive symptoms, via EC; higher EF abilities were related to higher levels of EC, which in turn were related to lower scores of inattentive and hyperactive–impulsive ADHD symptoms. S and NA did not mediate relations among EF and hyperactive–impulsive symptoms.Conclusion: The findings expand on those of previous studies of the complex relationship between temperament dimensions and EF and confirm the differential association between impairments in some EF, low EC, and the expression of inattentive and hyperactive–impulsive symptoms in adolescents, which may account for the ADHD–control group differences.

3288 Prenatal maternal exposure to disaster-related stress and effortful control in early childhood

OBJECTIVES/SPECIFIC AIMS: Our overall objectives are to determine (i) whether natural disaster-related prenatal maternal stress (PNMS) alters infants’ effortful control (EC) at two years of age, and (ii) if the timing of exposure moderates its effects on toddlers EC. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: We propose a longitudinal study with 50 mother-toddler dyads. Natural disaster-related PNMS would be measured at 12-15 and 18-24 months of age and will include: objective exposure and maternal distress. EC will be measured with a questionnaire and a Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery at two years of age. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: We anticipate that children exposed to Hurricane-related PNMS would present low EC levels compared to those with low prenatal exposure. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: These results are expected to provide evidence for further promoting early intervention and ameliorating negative effects of PNMS on child outcomes.

For Whom Is Anti-Bullying Intervention Most Effective? The Role of Temperament.

Studying moderators of the effects of anti-bullying universal interventions is essential to elucidate what works for whom and to tailor more intensive, selective, and indicated programs which meet the needs of non-responders. The present study investigated whether early adolescents’ temperament—effortful control (EC), negative emotionality (NE), and positive emotionality (PE)—moderates the effects of the KiVa anti-bullying program. The sample consisted of 13 schools, with 1051 sixth-grade early adolescents (mean age = 10.93; SD = 0.501), randomly assigned to the KiVa intervention (seven schools; n = 536) or to the control condition (six schools; n = 516). Adolescents reported bullying and victimization before the intervention (pre-test) and after (post-test). Temperament was assessed by a self-report pre-test. Findings showed that EC and NE moderated intervention effects on bullying, indicating that subgroups with high levels of EC, and with low and medium levels of NE were those who benefited most from the intervention. The low-EC subgroup showed a lower increase compared to the control condition, with a considerable effect size. Conversely, the high-NE subgroup did not show any positive effects compared to the control group. Regarding victimization, findings showed that early adolescents with high and medium levels of PE were the subgroups who benefited the most from the intervention, whereas the low-PE subgroup was the most resistant. The present study confirms the relevance of considering temperament as a moderator of intervention effects, since interventions tailored to early adolescents with specific traits might yield larger effects.

Parental Conflict and Problematic Internet Use in Chinese Adolescents: Testing a Moderated Mediation Model of Adolescents' Effortful Control and Emotional Dysregulation.

This study analyzed the association between parental conflict and adolescents' problematic Internet use (PIU), especially the mediating role of adolescent emotional dysregulation and the moderating role of adolescents' effortful control. About 870 middle school students participated in this survey, reporting on their perceived parental conflict, their own emotional dysregulation, effortful control, and PIU. The results demonstrated that the association between parental conflict and adolescent PIU was completely mediated by adolescent emotional dysregulation. Adolescent effortful control was found to moderate the indirect relation of parental conflict to adolescent PIU, with parental conflict more strongly associated with PIU for adolescents with lower levels of effortful control. Our findings add to the extant insights on how parental conflict could contribute to adolescent PIU.

Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Associations of Temperament and Mental Disorders in Youth

Here we evaluate the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between temperament and mental disorders in adolescents. Temperament was assessed in a cohort of 1540 youths by the revised self-report Early Adolescence Temperament Questionnaire (EATQ-R) at baseline and confirmatory factor analyses were used to test the best empirical model. Mental disorders were assessed by parental interview using the Development and Well-Being Behavior Assessment at baseline and at 3-year follow-up. Participants were grouped into Typically Developing Comparisons, Phobias, Distress, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Disruptive Behavior Disorders (DBD). Logistic regression models tested the effects of temperament on incidence and remission of mental disorders. The bifactor model of EATQ-R presented the best fit. Distress, ADHD and DBD have lower levels of effortful control in baseline. Adjusted longitudinal analysis showed that effortful control predicted lower incidence of Phobias (OR 0.74; p = 0.018), distress (OR 0.74; p = 0.014) and DBD (OR 0.68; p = 0.037). Temperament factors did not predicted remission rates.

Relations of emotion-related temperamental characteristics to attentional biases and social functioning.

The current study examined whether an important temperamental characteristic, effortful control (EC), moderates the associations between dispositional anger and sadness, attention biases, and social functioning in a group of preschool-aged children (N = 77). Preschoolers' attentional biases toward angry and sad facial expressions were assessed using eye-tracking, and we obtained teachers' reports of children's temperament and social functioning. Associations of dispositional anger and sadness with time looking at relevant negative emotional stimuli were moderated by children's EC, but relations between time looking at emotional faces and indicators of social functioning, for the most part, were direct and not moderated by EC. In particular, time looking at angry faces (and low EC) predicted high levels of aggressive behaviors, whereas longer time looking at sad faces (and high EC) predicted higher social competence. Finally, latency to detect angry faces predicted aggressive behavior under conditions of average and low levels of EC. Findings are discussed in terms of the importance of differentiating between components of attention biases toward distinct negative emotions, and implications for attention training. (PsycINFO Database Record

Who SKIPS? Using Temperament to Explain Differential Outcomes of a Motor Competence Intervention for Preschoolers

ABSTRACTPurpose: Although motor skill interventions often improve fundamental motor skills (FMS) during preschool, the extent of individual children’s success in development of FMS still varies among children receiving the same intervention. Temperament is multifaceted and includes negative affect (high levels of frustration or anger), effortful control (focus, self-regulation, and concentration), and surgency (energy and activity level). Temperament often influences cognitive, social, and behavioral outcomes and may be a significant factor in the development of FMS. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of temperament on children’s improvement in FMS within a gross motor intervention. Method: Participants (N = 80; Mage = 55.36 months, SD = 6.99 months) completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition prior to and after intervention. Teachers completed the Child Behavior Questionnaire-Very Short Form to examine each child’s temperament. To account for possibility of a Type 1 error, we conducted 6 separate 2 (temperament variable: high, low) × 2 (treatment: intervention, control) analyses of covariance and examined posttest scores for locomotor and object-control skills with pretest scores as covariates among participants with high and low surgency, negative affect, and effortful control. Results: Results revealed children with low levels of negative affect and surgency and high levels of effortful control demonstrated greater gains (ηp2 = .05–.34) in both locomotor and object-control skills during motor skill intervention compared with their peers. Conclusion: Providing interventions tailored to temperamental profiles could maximize gains in FMS through intervention.