Effort-reward Imbalance Scale Research Articles

Occupational Stress, Work-Family Conflict and Depressive Symptoms among Chinese Bank Employees: The Role of Psychological Capital.

Although depression is a major problem affecting the physical and mental health of the occupational population worldwide, little research is available among bank employees. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of occupational stress and work-family conflict on depressive symptoms and the mediating role of psychological capital (PsyCap). A cross-sectional study was performed from May to June in 2013 in Liaoning province, China. The effort-reward imbalance (ERB) scale, the work-family conflict scale, the PsyCap questionnaire and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale were completed by 1546 employees in state-owned banks. A total of 1239 effective respondents (467 men and 772 women) became our subjects. Hierarchical regression analysis was carried out to explore the effects of extrinsic effort, reward, overcommitment, work-family conflict, and PsyCap on depressive symptoms. The mediating role of PsyCap was examined using Preacher and Hayes’ asymptotic and resampling strategies. The mean score of depressive symptoms was 18.4 (SD = 7.6) among the Chinese bank employees. Extrinsic effort, overcommitment and work-family conflict were positively associated with depressive symptoms. Reward and PsyCap were negatively associated with depressive symptoms. The significant mediating roles of PsyCap in the associations of extrinsic effort (a*b = 0.046, BCa 95% CI: 0.029, 0.066) and reward (a*b = −0.047, BCa 95% CI: −0.065, −0.030) with depressive symptoms were revealed. There is a high level of depressive symptoms among Chinese bank employees. PsyCap partially mediates the effects of extrinsic effort and reward on depressive symptoms. Investing in PsyCap may provide new approaches to improve mental health among Chinese bank employees.

UNDERSTANDING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EFFORT-REWARD IMBALANCE AND JOB STRESS: EVIDENCE FROM PAKISTANI SCHOOLS

Ponte Academic JournalApr 2016, Volume 72, Issue 4 UNDERSTANDING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EFFORT-REWARD IMBALANCE AND JOB STRESS: EVIDENCE FROM PAKISTANI SCHOOLSAuthor(s): Syed Nasir Hussain ,Abdul Hameed, Zubair Ahmad Shah, Mirza Muhammad AslamJ. Ponte - Apr 2016 - Volume 72 - Issue 4 doi: 10.21506/j.ponte.2016.4.7 Abstract:The study was conducted to understand the relationship between the perceived effort-reward imbalance and job stress of the teachers and headteachers of government schools of Punjab (Pakistan). The respondents (123 teachers and 106 headteachers) were selected conveniently / accidentally from two randomly selected tehsils � Sillanwali and Mianwali of Sargodha and Mianwali districts of Punjab (Pakistan). Two research instruments � Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) scale and Stress in General (SIG) scale were adopted for the study. Pearson coefficient of correlation and simple linear regression model were applied to explore the relationship between effort-reward imbalance and job stress. The study found that the teachers and headteachers perceive that their efforts are greater the rewards they get. No significant difference was found between the perceptions of the teachers and headteachers regarding effort-reward imbalance. Furthermore, both teachers and headteachers reported a high level of job stress. The headteachers reported significantly higher level of job stress than the teachers. Significant positive relationships were found among the perceived effort-reward imbalance, over-commitment and job stress of the respondents. It was found that effort-reward imbalance and over-commitment has a significant impact on the job stress of the teachers and headteachers of government schools in Punjab. Download full text:Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution Username Password

Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction among University Teachers in Northeastern Region of China: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Objective: Teachers’ job satisfaction is one of the key factors in institutional dynamics and is generally considered to be the primary variable by which the effectiveness of an organization’s human resource is evaluated. The objectives of this study were to assess the level of job satisfaction among university teachers and to clarify the associated factors. Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted between November 2013 and January 2014. Teachers from six universities in Shenyang, China were randomly sampled. The job satisfaction scale Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), perceived organizational support (POS), psychological capital questionnaire (PCQ-24), and effort-reward imbalance scale (ERI) together with questions about demographic and working factors were administered in questionnaires distributed to 1500 university teachers. Hierarchical linear regression analyses were performed to explore the related factors. Results: 1210 effective responses were obtained (effective respondent rate 80.7%). The average score of overall job satisfaction was 69.71. Hierarchical linear regression analysis revealed that turnover intention, occupational stress and chronic disease all had negative impacts on job satisfaction, whereas perceived organizational support, psychological capital and higher monthly income were positively associated with job satisfaction among the university teachers. Age was also linked to the level of job satisfaction. All the variables explained 60.7% of the variance in job satisfaction. Conclusions: Chinese university teachers had a moderate level of job satisfaction. Demographic and working characteristics were associated factors for job satisfaction. Perceived organizational support showed the strongest association with job satisfaction. Results of the study indicate that improving the perceived organizational support may increase the level of job satisfaction for university teachers.

The mediating role of psychological capital on the association between occupational stress and job burnout among bank employees in China.

Although job burnout is common among bank employees, few studies have explored positive resources for combating burnout in this population. This study aims to explore the relationship between occupational stress and job burnout among Chinese bank employees, and particularly the mediating role of psychological capital. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Liaoning, China, during June to August of 2013. A questionnaire that included the effort-reward imbalance scale, the Psychological Capital Questionnaire and the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey, as well as demographic and working factors, was distributed to 1739 employees of state-owned banks. This yielded 1239 effective respondents (467 men, 772 women). Asymptotic and resampling strategies explored the mediating role of psychological capital in the relationship between occupational stress and job burnout. Both extrinsic effort and overcommitment were positively associated with emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. Meanwhile, reward was negatively associated with emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation, but positively associated with personal accomplishment. There was a gender difference in the mediating role of Psychological capital on the occupational stress-job burnout. In male bank employees, Psychological capital mediated the relationships of extrinsic effort and reward with emotional exhaustion and depersonalization; in female bank employees, it partially mediated the relationships of extrinsic effort, reward and overcommitment with emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation, as well as the relationship between reward and personal accomplishment. Psychological capital was generally a mediator between occupational stress and job burnout among Chinese bank employees. Psychological capital may be a potential positive resource in reducing the negative effects of occupational stress on job burnout and relieving job burnout among bank employees, especially female bank employees.

The influence of occupational stress factors on nicotine dependence among students of health and nonhealth care professional colleges.

Objectives:To study the relationship between perceived job stress measured using Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) scale and nicotine dependence using Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) scale among students of health and nonhealth care professional colleges.Materials and Methods:A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried on convenient sample of 408 health and nonhealth care professional who were current smokers. Nicotine dependence was measured using the FTND. The extent of the stress factors experienced at work was assessed using the ERI. Chi-square test and logistic regression were used for the statistical analysis.Results:Occupational stress factors are actually associated with higher levels of nicotine dependence (odds ratio = 4.523). The degree of nicotine dependence and stress imbalance was found to be more among health care professional students as compared to nonhealth care professional students (P < 0.05). Being religious was found to have a significant effect in reducing nicotine dependence.Conclusion:Being religious, having low occupational stress and being nonhealth care professional have a significant effect on the prevention of nicotine dependence.

O Estresse Psicossocial do Enfermeiro em Oncologia: uma Análise a partir da Escala Desequilíbrio Esforço-Recompensa

Introduction: This study examines the psychosocial stress in oncology nurses according to the effort-reward imbalance (ERI) model. This model is based on the relationship between efforts and rewards generated in the workplace and it is being used in occupational epidemiology research worldwide. Objective: To identify the factors associated with psychosocial stress among nurses. Method: We used the database of a cross-sectional study entitled “Nurses Health Study”, conducted in the 18 largest hospitals in the municipality of Rio de Janeiro between 2010 and 2011. This study was approved by the research ethics committees of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, the National Institute of Cancer and the School of Nursing Anna Nery. The present investigation included 211 (94%) nurses from the National Institute of Cancer. Data collection was based on a comprehensive self-administered questionnaire that included the ERI scale and questions on socio-demographic data, occupational variables and questions about health and health habits. Statistical analyses were based on the multivariate logistic regression. Adjusted odds ratios and respective 95% confidence interval were presented. Results: Younger nurses are approximately three times more likely to have a high ERI in comparison to older nurses (OR: 3,17; IC95%1,59-6,31); those who had the intention to leave their jobs have 13.26 more chance to have a high ERI (OR: 13,26; IC95%4,27-41,16). Conclusion: Younger nurses and those nurses who reported intention to leave their jobs have greater imbalance between effort expended and reward received at work. The issue of psychosocial stress at work deserves more attention, especially among oncology nurses.

Validation of the Use of the Effort-Reward Imbalance Scale in Human Services Using Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The effort-reward imbalance (ERI) model and scale are well-established in the human services literature as useful and valid mechanisms for studying the mismatch between employees’ perceptions of the amount of effort expended on work tasks and the rewards received for those efforts. In the almost 20 years since its introduction, the ERI scale structure has been analyzed by a number of researchers from inside and outside the human service fields, with those analyses contributing to the theoretical and practical evolution of the ERI model and scale. However, the collective results also have substantial differences that remain unresolved. This study aims to determine the first steps in finding a resolution for the practical differences between existing factor analyses and the resulting theoretical implications for human services literature and practice. This study identifies an existing factor structure that offers the best fit to the data with the addition of a second-order factor. Model results and implications for theory and future research are discussed.

The association between occupational stress and depressive symptoms and the mediating role of psychological capital among Chinese university teachers: a cross-sectional study.

BackgroundDepression is a major public health problem that affects both individuals and society. Previous studies report that university teachers are particularly susceptible to high levels of occupational stress and depressive symptoms. The aims of this study were to explore the association between occupational stress and depressive symptoms in a group of university teachers, and assess the mediating role of psychological capital between these variables.MethodsA cross-sectional study was performed between November 2013 and January 2014. Teachers from six universities were randomly sampled in Shenyang. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, effort-reward imbalance scale, and psychological capital questionnaire (PCQ-24), as well as questions about demographic and working factors, were administered in questionnaires distributed to 1,500 university teachers. Completed questionnaires were received from 1,210 participants. Hierarchical linear regression analysis was used to examine the mediating role of psychological capital.ResultsIn the present study, 58.9% (95% CI (Confidence Intervals): 56.1% to 61.7%) of university teachers had a CES-D score equal to or above the cut-off of 16. Both effort–reward ratio (ERR) and scores of over-commitment were positively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas psychological capital was negatively associated with depressive symptoms among university teachers. Psychological capital partially mediated the relationship between occupational stress and depressive symptoms.ConclusionsAmong Chinese university teachers, occupational stress may be a risk factor for depressive symptoms, whereas psychological capital might be protective against depressive symptoms. Our results suggest that college administrators could support the development of psychological capital in their staff to alleviate depressive symptoms.

The mediating effects of burnout on the relationship between anxiety symptoms and occupational stress among community healthcare workers in China: a cross-sectional study.

BackgroundSeveral occupational stress studies of healthcare workers have predicted a high prevalence of anxiety symptoms, which can affect their quality of life and the care that they provide. However, few studies have been conducted among community healthcare workers in China. We attempted to explore whether burnout mediates the association between occupational stress and anxiety symptoms.MethodsA cross-sectional survey was completed in Liaoning Province, China from November to December 2012. A total of 1,752 healthcare workers from 52 Community Health Centers participated in this study, and all participants were given self-administered questionnaires. These questionnaires addressed the following aspects: the Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, the Chinese version of the effort-reward imbalance scale and the Maslach Burnout Inventory–General Survey. Finally, the study included 1,243 effective respondents (effective response rate, 70.95%). Hierarchical linear regression analysis, performed with SPSS 17.0, was used to estimate the effect of burnout.ResultsThe prevalence of anxiety symptoms among the community healthcare workers was 38.0%. After adjusting for demographic characteristics, the effort–reward ratio and overcommitment positively predicted anxiety symptoms. Meanwhile, the effort–reward ratio and overcommitment were positively related to the emotional exhaustion and cynicism subscales of burnout. In addition, the emotional exhaustion and cynicism subscales were positively related to anxiety symptoms. Thus, there is a link between burnout, occupational stress and anxiety symptoms.ConclusionsBurnout mediates the effect of occupational stress on anxiety symptoms. To effectively reduce the impact of occupational stress on anxiety symptoms, burnout management should be considered.

Working in gender-dominated occupations and depressive symptoms: findings from the two age cohorts of the lidA study

Gender-specific differences in the frequency of depression to the disadvantage of women have been known for decades. In Germany, there is evidence that the prevalence of mental disorders also differs by occupation. The present study investigates whether for women working in male-dominated occupations and for men working in female-dominated occupations is related to depressive symptoms independently from other factors like work stress and work-family conflict. Special attention is paid to gender differences. Moreover, women are distinguished according to their working time (full-time or not). We use data from the first wave of the lidAstudy for our analyses. We make use of the applied Beck Depression Inventory, the effort-reward imbalance scales as well as the work-family conflict scale. Occupational gender segregation is defined as a share of 80 % of men and women per occupation, respectively. For women, the results of the multivariate analyses show an independent relationship between depressive symptoms and working in male-dominated occupations. Furthermore, significant interactions between occupational gender segregation and work stress are observed in both men and women regarding depressive symptoms.

Longitudinal measurement invariance of the effort-reward imbalance scales in the Young Finns study

ObjectivesIn order to make valid conclusions about individual change in work-related risk factors it is important to examine whether these factors are measurement invariant over time. We tested the measurement...

Relationship between effort–reward imbalance and hair cortisol concentration in female kindergarten teachers

ObjectiveThe present study aims to investigate the relationship between effort–reward imbalance and hair cortisol concentration among teachers to examine whether hair cortisol can be a biomarker of chronic work stress. MethodsHair samples were collected from 39 female teachers from three kindergartens. Cortisol was extracted from the hair samples with methanol, and cortisol concentrations were measured with high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Work stress was measured using the effort–reward imbalance scale. ResultsThe ratio of effort to reward showed significantly positive association with hair cortisol concentration. ConclusionThe cortisol concentration in the system increases with the effort–reward imbalance. Measurement of hair cortisol can become a useful biomarker of chronic work stress.

Relationship between depressive state, job stress, and sense of coherence among female nurses.

Background:People with a strong sense of coherence (SOC) have a high ability to cope with stress and maintain good physical and mental health.Aims:The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between depressive state, job stress, and SOC among nurses in a Japanese general hospital.Materials and Methods:A self-reporting survey was conducted among 348 female nurses in a general hospital. Job stress was measured using the Japanese version of the effort-reward imbalance (ERI) scale. Depressive state was assessed by the K6 scale. SOC was assessed with the SOC scale, which includes 29 items. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine factors that significantly affect depressive state.Results:SOC, over-commitment, effort-esteem ratio, and age were significantly correlated with the depressive state (β = −0.46, P < 0.001; β = 0.27, P < 0.001; β = 0.16, P < 0.001; β = −0.10, P < 0.001, respectively).Conclusions:SOC may have a major influence on the depressive state among female nurses in a Japanese general hospital. From a practical perspective, health care professionals should try to enhance the SOC of nurses.

The Gutenberg Health Study: measuring psychosocial factors at work and predicting health and work-related outcomes with the ERI and the COPSOQ questionnaire

BackgroundSeveral instruments have been developed to assess psychosocial workload. We compared two of these instruments, the Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) model and the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ) with regard to congruent validity and internal validity.MethodsThis analysis is based on a population-based sample of the baseline examination of 2,783 employees from the Gutenberg Health Study (GHS). About half of the participants completed the ERI questionnaire (n = 1,342), the other half completed the COPSOQ (n = 1,441). First, the two samples were compared and descriptive analyses were carried out calculating mean values for both instruments in general, then separately for age, gender and main occupational groups. Second, we analyzed the relationship between ERI and COPSOQ scales on the workplace situation and on the workplace outcomes: job satisfaction, general health, burnout, satisfaction with life, by applying stepwise logistic regression analysis.Results and discussionFor the majority of occupations, high effort as reflected by the ERI corresponded with high demands as reflected by the COPSOQ. Comparably, high reward (according to ERI) yielded a good agreement with high “influence and development” (according to COPSOQ). However, we could also find differences between ERI and COPSOQ concerning the intensity of psychosocial workload in some occupations (e.g., physicians/pharmacists or warehouse managers/warehousemen/transport workers). These differences point to differing theoretical concepts of ERI and COPSOQ. When the ability of ERI and COPSOQ was examined to determine the associations with health and work outcomes, burnout could be better predicted by the COPSOQ; this might be due to the fact that COPSOQ comprises the constructs “work-privacy conflict” and “emotional demand”, which are closely related to burnout. However, methodological differences between these instruments limit their direct comparability.ConclusionsThe ERI and COPSOQ instrument yielded similar results for most occupational groups. The slightly stronger association between psychosocial workload as assessed by COPSOQ and burnout might be explained by its broader approach. The ability of the ERI and COPSOQ instrument to reflect relevant risk factors for clinically manifest disorders (e.g., coronary heart disease) will be derived from subsequent prospective analyses of the GHS with the follow-up data.

FRI0537 Self-reported health status and effort-reward imbalance in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus

BackgroundWork environment factors influence patients’ (life) satisfaction and well being. The model of effort-reward imbalance (ERI) was developed to identify health-adverse effects produced by a stressful psychosocial job-related environment. Research...

Stress, strain, and health outcomes of occupational drivers: An application of the effort reward imbalance model on Taiwanese public transport drivers

Stress is the primary cause of strain and health problems for occupational drivers whose jobs directly relate to public safety. Although several stress theories and scales have been proposed, the method of adequately measuring the stress of occupational drivers remains unclear. We investigated the reliability and validity of the effort–reward imbalance (ERI) model and the generic 23-item ERI scale and its association to strain and health problems in occupational drivers. A total of 927 Taiwanese public transport drivers were recruited. Parallel confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were applied to evaluate the validity of the ERI components. Their association with burnout levels, cardiovascular disease (CVD) symptoms, and self-rated health was examined using regression methods. The CFA results showed satisfactory psychometric properties of the ERI components. Physical demands, overtime, and stress-induced sleep problems were the primary stressors in occupational drivers. The regression results showed that an imbalance between effort and reward and overcommitment levels were strong and independent predictors of strain and health outcomes. We extend the application of the ERI model to measure the stress of Taiwanese public transport drivers; its correlation with strain and health outcomes shows that the ERI scale is a reliable tool for identifying strained or unhealthy drivers.

Validating abbreviated measures of effort-reward imbalance at work in European cohort studies: the IPD-Work consortium

Effort-reward imbalance (ERI) is an established conceptualisation of work stress. Although a validated effort-reward questionnaire is available for public use, many epidemiological studies adopt shortened scales and proxy measures. To examine the agreement between different abbreviated measures and the original instrument, we compared different versions of the effort-reward scales available in 15 European cohort studies participating in the IPD-Work (Individual-participant-data meta-analysis in working populations) consortium. Five of the 15 studies provide information on the original ('complete') scales measuring 'effort' and 'reward', whereas the 10 remaining studies used 'partial' scales. To compare different versions of the ERI scales, we analyse individual-level data from 31,790 participants from the five studies with complete scales. Pearson's correlation between partial and complete scales was very high in case of 'effort' (where 2 out of 3 items were used) and very high or high in case of 'reward', if at least 4 items (out of 7) were included. Reward scales composed of 3 items revealed good to satisfactory agreement, and in one case, a reward scale consisting of 2 items only demonstrated a modest, but still acceptable degree of agreement. Sensitivity and specificity of a composite measure, the ratio of effort and reward, comparing partial versus complete scales ranged between 59-93 and 85-99 %, respectively. Complete and partial scales were strongly associated with poor self-rated health. Our results support the notion that short proxy measures or partial versions of the original scales can be used to assess effort-reward imbalance.

Effect of Burnout on Accident Involvement in Occupational Drivers

Managing the health and wellness of occupational drivers requires the recognition of burnout as an occupational hazard. However, the literature is dominated by studies of stress rather than burnout. The manner in which burnout may affect accident involvement is investigated in occupational drivers. The proposed causal structure is based on the stressor–strain model, in which burnout mediates between occupational stress and accident involvement. The study recruited 915 public transport drivers. The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory and an effort–reward imbalance scale were adopted to measure burnout and occupational stress, respectively. Results of the analysis indicated that burnout exerted a direct effect on accident involvement beyond the effect of occupational stress. Enhancing the perception of a safety culture does not significantly reduce the effect of occupational stress on burnout; however, it does significantly reduce the effect of burnout on accident involvement and thus indirectly alleviates the effect of occupational stress on accident involvement. In summary, as a comprehensive measure of the adverse effect of various types of chronic stressors, burnout provides a strong indicator for the identification of drivers who pose a risk to the organization and to road safety. Burnout management should be incorporated into overall stress management. Occupational drivers normally experience a low level of empowerment and long work hours; thus, a safety culture is crucial to this occupational category to reduce burnout and ensure workplace safety.

Factorial validity of the effort–reward imbalance scale: evidence from multi-sample and three-wave follow-up studies

The present study investigated whether the factor structure of the effort-reward imbalance (ERI) scale (Siegrist et al. Soc Sci Med 58:1483-1499, 2004) remains same across two white-collar samples (i.e., factorial group invariance) and across three measurement times (i.e., factorial time invariance). The factorial group invariance was tested using two different samples including 1,301 managers and 758 young white-collar professionals. The factorial time invariance was tested in the latter sample with a four-year three-wave follow-up design. The confirmatory factor analysis performed supported the theoretically based structure of the ERI scale, that is, the scale included two first-order factors of effort and overcommitment and one second-order factor of reward with first-order factors of esteem, career opportunities, and job security. The factorial group invariance of this structure was also supported. In addition, the factor loadings of all factors remained same across three measurements; thus, lending support for the factorial time invariance. The ERI scale was found to be a valid tool to measure costs and gains of social exchanges at work as well as individual orientation toward work in these two occupational samples including a longitudinal study design.

The mediating role of psychological capital on the association between occupational stress and depressive symptoms among Chinese physicians: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundAlthough occupational stress is an identified predictor of depressive symptoms, the mechanism behind the association is not well understood. The purpose of this study was to examine how psychological capital (PsyCap), a positive psychological state, mediates the association between occupational stress and depressive symptoms among Chinese physicians.MethodsA cross-sectional survey was conducted in Liaoning Province, China, during September–October 2010. Self-administered questionnaires including items on depressive symptoms assessed by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, occupational stress assessed by the effort–reward imbalance scale and PsyCap estimated by a 24-item Psychological Capital Questionnaire, together with age, gender, marital status and education were distributed to 1300 physicians employed in large general hospitals. The final sample consisted of 998 participants. Asymptotic and resampling strategies were used to examine how PsyCap mediates the association between occupational stress and depressive symptoms.ResultsBoth the effort/reward ratio (ERR) and overcommitment were significantly associated with depressive symptoms among male and female physicians. There was a gender difference in the mediating role of PsyCap on the occupational stress–depressive symptoms association. For male physicians, PsyCap did not mediate the association between occupational stress and depressive symptoms. For female physicians, ERR and overcommitment were negatively associated with PsyCap, and PsyCap was negatively associated with depressive symptoms. As a result, PsyCap significantly mediated the associations of ERR and overcommitment with depressive symptoms. The proportion of PsyCap mediation was 19.07% for ERR, and 24.29% for overcommitment.ConclusionsPsyCap could be a positive resource for combating depressive symptoms in Chinese physicians. In addition to reducing occupational stress, PsyCap development should be included in depression prevention and treatment strategies, especially for female physicians.