Efficient Water Transport Research Articles

An investigation into the morphological and anatomical characteristics of three cassava (\( Manihot \,\, esculenta\)) varieties collected from the Northern provinces of Vietnam

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a crucial crop that sustains millions of people across tropical and subtropical regions, providing an essential source of carbohydrates and contributing significantly to food security. Morphologically, varieties KM94, 08SA06, and Ruột vàng exhibit distinct traits such as plant form, leaf structure, tuber shape, and starch content, which underline their adaptability and potential for high yield under diverse growing conditions. Anatomically, the stems of these varieties demonstrate unique structural features, including tightly packed epidermal cells with thick cuticle layers, varying layers of collenchyma and parenchyma, robust sclerenchyma rings, and well-organized vascular bundles. These features ensure efficient nutrient and water transport, structural integrity, and resilience against environmental stresses, essential for the growth and development of these cassava varieties. By highlighting these morphological and anatomical traits, this study emphasizes the importance of such detailed analyses for improving cassava cultivation practices.

Calla lily-inspired 3D evaporator: A dual interface design for enhanced solar water evaporation

Due to the exponential growth of the global population, groundwater resources have long been insufficient to meet the escalating demand for potable water. In recent years, interfacial solar stream generation (ISSG) technology has emerged as a pivotal approach in generating clean water. The paramount performance factors of solar thermal evaporators encompass their exceptional light absorption capacity, efficient water transport, and effective thermal management. Among these factors, the 3D interface evaporator stands out due to its inherent advantages and ingenious structural design that enhances overall performance. In this study, the structure of calla lilies was used as inspiration, we propose a novel design featuring a 3D inverted conical double-sided evaporator (3D-ASIE) which effectively traps sunlight within its core, thereby augmenting light absorption capabilities while simultaneously forming a dual-evaporation interface. The inverted conical structure comprises two cellulose/TiN aerogel films with superior light absorption and heat insulation properties along with a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) hydrophilic film that is skillfully bent and assembled together. To ensure continuous water supply during evaporation, the tail end of the hydrophilic membrane is immersed in water. During interfacial evaporation process, activation of the outer photothermal layer of our 3D-ASIE facilitates steam diffusion along both inner and outer surfaces of the inverted cone structure concurrently resulting in an impressive dual-evaporative effect. Under sunlight intensity level at 1 kW m−2, our 3D-ASIE exhibits remarkable performance with an evaporation flux reaching up to 2.97 kg m−2 h−1 alongside an efficiency as high as 94.7 %, thus demonstrating immense potential for large-scale solar desalination applications.

Hydraulic strategy defines contrasting responses to an abrupt precipitation during a successive lethal drought

BackgroundAs precipitation patterns are predicted to become more erratic, it’s vital to understand how abrupt climate events will affect woody seedlings that develop different hydraulic strategies. We cultivated anisohydric Robinia pseudoacacia L. and isohydric Quercus acutissima Carr. in a greenhouse, and subjected an abrupt precipitation event during a successive drought. Patterns of leaf and root gas exchange, leaf and stem hydraulics, seedlings growth, and non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) patterns were determined.ResultsWe found that as an anisohydric species, R. pseudoacacia seedlings adopted a strategy of sacrificing leaves in response to stress, resulting in the lowered photosynthesis and ultimately leading to a decrease in NSC accumulation. In contrast, isohydric Q. acutissima maintained the integrity of leaves by reducing respiratory consumption in response to drought stress, thereby ensured the stability of NSC pool.ConclusionR. pseudoacacia exhibited an extravagant strategy with efficient water transport, photosynthetic assimilation, and growth capabilities, but its resistance to embolism was relatively weak, while Q. acutissima adopted a resource-saving strategy with higher hydraulic safety. We also found that Q. acutissima seedlings were prone to allocate carbohydrates to maintain growth, while R. pseudoacacia preferred to sacrifice growth and aboveground NSC limitation only happened when precipitation was subjected after total stomatal closure. We thus believe that hydraulic strategy could define seedlings responses to drought and recovery, and further may adversely affect their re-sprouting capacity after drought stress relief.

Design of expanded graphite/poly (vinyl alcohol) hierarchically porous carbon foam by a controllable vacuum foaming strategy for efficient solar evaporation

Porous carbon-based evaporators with high light absorption, flexible heat management, and efficient water supply are highly desired in solar water evaporation. However, exploring a facile and powerful strategy to prepare porous carbon-based evaporators remains challenging. In this study, we develop an expanded graphite (EG) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hierarchically porous carbon foam (EG/PVA foam) through a controllable vacuum foaming strategy for solar water evaporation. Owing to high light absorption, low thermal conductivity, efficient water transport, and ample evaporation surface, the optimized EG/PVA foam achieves an evaporation rate of ∼3.10 kg m−2 h−1 with an efficiency of ∼90.75% under one sun irradiation (1 kW m−2). Gratifyingly, the EG/PVA foam enables sufficient vapor diffusion and enhances passive cooling by air convection, thereby achieving a high evaporation rate of ∼8.20 kg m−2 h−1 (wind speed of 3 m s−1). Furthermore, the EG/PVA foam also displays excellent desalination and purification performances with good structural stability, showing considerable promise in practical applications. This work provides a promising path to produce porous carbon-based evaporator for high performance solar water evaporation.

TiO2 nanoparticle coated carbon nanotube sponge with high sunlight absorption and good hydrophilicity for efficient interfacial solar-powered vapor generation

Solar-powered interfacial vapor generation is considered a promising sustainable energy technology. We use porous TiO2 nanoparticle coated carbon nanotube sponges (CNTS@TiO2) as sunlight absorbers to study solar-powered interfacial vapor generation due to the extremely strong sunlight absorption of CNTs and TiO2. The highly porous structures have great benefits to water transport in the sunlight absorbers. The formation of TiO2 on the sidewalls of CNTs improves the hydrophilicity of the light absorber and wettability of water on the sidewalls of CNTs. The water can rapidly infiltrate the porous CNTS@TiO2 composites. Additionally, the multiple internal reflections in “TiO2 forest” greatly reduce the diffused reflection and thus enhance sunlight absorption. The CNTS@TiO2 composites exhibit high sunlight absorption (96.7 %). The efficient water transport and strong light absorption in the porous light absorbers significantly improved the evaporation performance. The CNTS@TiO2 composite with the rhombic TiO2 shows high water evaporation rate of 3.15 ± 0.14 kg m-2 h-1 and energy transfer efficiency of 89.5 ± 3.9 % under 1-sun radiation.

Highly Efficient Porous Glass Solar Water Evaporator

AbstractThe global water crisis, exacerbated by excessive use and pollution, has resulted in energy scarcity and threats. Solar desalination provides a sustainable fix, with researchers developing photothermal materials and designs to improve efficiency and sustainability. Glass materials, with their exceptional chemical stability, are suitable for extreme desalination in acidic and alkaline conditions. In this work, we have developed a porous glass evaporator (PGE) with exceptional water evaporation efficiency, achieved through a novel fabrication method that blends glass powders with soluble salts to create structure with continuous pores. The evaporator's microstructure comprises micrometer‐scale pores that form interconnected porous channels, facilitating efficient water transport and preventing salt deposition. Under one sun irradiation, the PGE exhibits superior solar evaporation performance in pure water, achieving a rate of 2.21 kg m−2 h−1, with an evaporation efficiency of 98%. In more complex media, such as seawater and methylene blue solution, the PGE also displays excellent evaporation capabilities, reaching rates of 2.08 and 2.47 kg m−2 h−1, respectively. Even after sustained alternation between acidic and alkaline treatments, the PGE retains an impressive evaporation rate of over 2.0 kg m−2 h−1, coupled with structural robustness, making it a promising candidate for practical applications in extreme environments.

Mistletoes have higher hydraulic safety but lower efficiency in xylem traits than their hosts.

Both mistletoes and their hosts are challenged by increasing drought, highlighting the necessity of understanding their comparative hydraulic properties. The high transpiration of mistletoes requires efficient water transport, while high xylem tensions demand strong embolism resistance, representing a hydraulic paradox. This study, conducted across four environments with different aridity indices in Yunnan, China, examined the xylem traits of 119 mistletoe-host species pairs. Mistletoes showed lower water use efficiency, indicating a more aggressive water use. They also showed lower hydraulic efficiency (lower vessel diameter and theoretical hydraulic conductivity) but higher safety (lower vulnerability index and higher conduit wall reinforcement, vessel grouping index, and wood density) compared with their hosts, supporting the trade-off between efficiency and safety. Environmental variation across sites significantly affected xylem trait comparisons between mistletoes and hosts. Additionally, the xylem traits of mistletoes were strongly influenced by host water supply efficiency. The overall xylem trait relationships in mistletoes and hosts were different. These findings stress the impact of host and site on the hydraulic traits of mistletoes, and suggest that mistletoes may achieve high transpiration by maintaining high stomatal conductance under low water potentials. This study illuminates the distinctive adaptation strategies of mistletoes due to their parasitic lifestyle.

Cilia‐Inspired Functional Channels for High‐Speed and Directional PEMFC Drainage

AbstractProton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) consist of channels that require efficient drainage for optimum performance. However, it remains a grand challenge to achieve both directed and high‐speed active drainage in PEMFC channels. This greatly limits current PEMFC performance. Herein, inspired by respiratory cilia, a bioinspired structural design strategy is introduced into the channel surface to significantly enhance its active droplet transport efficiency. Two artificial cilia arrays are fabricated and named as plane‐bottom artificial cilia array (PACA) and concave‐bottom artificial cilia array (CACA) according to their respective shapes. PACA demonstrates stable directional transport. The droplet speed reaches as high as 86 mm s−1 with droplet volumes ranging from 10 to 20 µL. This is surpassed by CACA. Its speed reaches as high as 163 mm s−1 for droplet volumes ranging from 10 to 50 µL. PEMFC experimental evaluation of diameter sizes shows that CACA can be tuned for enhancing its electrochemical performance. CACA‐8 achieves the maximum power density (0.5339 W cm−2) at 1.1864 A cm−2, representing an 18.70% increase compared to conventional PEMFC channels. This work provides a promising strategy for the stable and efficient transport of liquid water in PEMFC.

Wood Anatomical and Demographic Similarities Between Self-Standing Liana and Tree Seedlings in Tropical Dry Forests of Colombia.

Canopy lianas differ considerably from trees in terms of wood anatomical structure, and they are suggested to have a demographic advantage-faster growth and higher survival-than trees. However, it remains unclear whether these anatomical and demographic differences persist at the seedling stage, when most liana species are self-standing and, consequently, might be ecologically similar to trees. We assessed how self-standing liana and tree seedlings differ in relation to wood anatomy, growth, and survival. We measured 12 wood traits and monitored seedling growth and survival over one year for 10 self-supporting liana and 10 tree seedling species from three tropical dry forests in Colombia. Liana and tree seedlings exhibited similar survival rates and wood anatomies for traits related to water storage and mechanical support. Yet, for traits associated with water transport, liana seedlings showed greater variability in vessel lumen size, while tree seedlings had higher vessel density. Also, the liana relative growth rate was significantly higher than for trees. These results indicate that, while self-supporting liana and tree seedlings are anatomically similar in terms of mechanical support and water storage-likely contributing to their similar survival rates-liana seedlings have a growth advantage, possibly due to more efficient water transport. These findings suggest that the well-documented anatomical and demographic differences between adult lianas and trees may depend on the liana's developmental stage, with more efficient water transport emerging as a key trait from early stages.

Prussian Blue-Carbonized wood photothermal composites for efficient solar evaporation and seawater desalination

Freshwater scarcity, exacerbated by environmental pollution, poses a significant global challenge. This study addresses these challenges by developing a Prussian blue/carbonized wood (PB/CW) photothermal composite for solar desalination. The PB/CW composite exhibits enhanced solar absorption and photothermal conversion. The integration of Prussian blue (PB) on the honeycomb structure of wood facilitates efficient water transport and minimizes heat loss, underscoring the composite’s potential in practical solar desalination applications. Under natural sunlight, the PB/CW system achieves an evaporation rate of 4.39 kg m-2 h-1, demonstrating its high efficiency in converting solar energy into water evaporation. This work offers a novel and effective approach to designing low-cost, high-efficiency solar evaporators, advancing the field of sustainable desalination technology.

Bioinspired Composite Fabrics with Nanoneedle Structures for High Wicking-Evaporation performance

Achieving ultrafast antigravity water transport and evaporation in high-performance moisture-wicking fabrics remains a significant challenge in textile engineering. In this study, we introduce two novel asymmetric composite fabrics, NN-TS/PET/BS and NS-TS/PET/BS, developed through a straightforward one-step method. These fabrics incorporate different hydrophilic nanostructures—nanoneedles (NN) and nanosheets (NS) of cobalt carbonate—to enhance wicking-evaporation capabilities. The NN-TS/PET/BS fabric exhibited superior unidirectional water transport and evaporation performance, achieving a one-way transport value (R) of up to 330 %, an outstanding overall moisture management capacity (OMMC) of 0.87, and a rapid water evaporation rate of 0.5 g h⁻¹, which is 2 and 2.3 times higher than that of NS-TS/PET/BS and Coolmax, respectively. Detailed analyses revealed that the curvature gradients in the nanoneedles significantly enhanced the wetting and evaporation stages, facilitating efficient antigravity water transport. Wear studies confirmed that the NN-TS/PET/BS fabric could swiftly remove sweat from the skin surface, enhancing comfort and performance. These findings offer new perspectives for developing high-performance unidirectional water transport fabrics with broad application potential, including smart textiles, fog harvesting, and wound dressings.

Intelligent hybrid hydrogel with nanoarchitectonics for water harvesting from acidic fog

With the development of society, the demand for water resources has risen has increased sharply, and water shortage is becoming a huge challenge to mankind. Therefore, it is extremely urgent to develop a convenient, low-cost, and environmentally friendly fog harvesting material. In this work, inspired by lotus stem with efficient water transport characteristics, the intelligent hybrid hydrogel (IHH) synergistically combines the characteristics of the pH-sensitive PDMAEMA polymer chain and thermo-switchable PNIPAM polymer chain, which simultaneously realizes superior efficient acidic fog uptake (∼6.5 g/g), high-density acidic fog storage, ultra-fast clean water releasing in the efficiency of ∼90 % for 12 min at 60 °C and high cycling stability (∼25 cycles). It is mainly attributed that the amine groups of the PDMAEMA chains are protonated under acidic state, and further the hydration is enhanced, and thus resulting the hydrogel to absorb the acid fog and swell. The PNIPAM polymer can achieve a rapidly reversible phase transition from a hydrophilic state to a hydrophobic one when the temperature beyond LCST, achieving the water releasing quickly. This IHH achieves preliminary water purification, which converts the harvested acidic fog into clean water as the freshwater generator. The IHH offers an insight into the design of novel materials that serve as the freshwater generator in complex environments of practical applications such as fog harvesting devices or systems.

When cellulose nanocrystals meet graphene oxide: Structurally enhanced aerogels for efficient solar steam generation and water purification

Pollution, population growth, and climate change are intensifying global freshwater shortages. Traditional methods of collecting freshwater, such as rainwater harvesting and sewage treatment, have high energy consumption, limiting their implementation in underdeveloped regions. On the other hand, solar-driven seawater evaporation offers a promising solution, purifying water using naturally abundant solar energy. Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) is considered as a strong candidate for this purpose due to its broad spectral absorption. However, its hydrophobicity hinders its direct use in solar steam generators. Here, we report the preparation of a series of cellulose nanocrystal (CNC)-rGO aerogels (CGAs) through a one-pot hydrothermal gelation process, followed by unidirectional freeze-drying. The introduction of CNCs enhances the hydrophilicity and structural stability of the resulting CGAs. The CGAs also feature uniform and unidirectional channels that promote efficient water transport, as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray microtomography (XMT). The CGAs have an optimized water evaporation rate of 1.80 kg m−2 h−1 under 1 sun irradiation, with 90 % solar-to-vapor energy efficiency. Moreover, durability and seawater desalination tests provide additional evidence for the practicality of CGAs in water purification. It is anticipated the implementation of CGAs will expedite the application of solar steam generators in practical scenarios.

3D‐Shape Recoverable Hydrogel with Highly Efficient Water Transport for Solar Water Desalination

AbstractPorous hydrogels have been developed to be highly efficient interfacial solar vapor generation materials for obtaining affordable freshwater supplies. However, realizing hydrogel materials with portability, adequate water supply, and durable mechanical properties remains challenging. Herein, a scalable and portable hydrogel with 3D‐shaped recovery, highly efficient water transport, and robust mechanical stability is reported, which is prepared by foaming polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and modification of phosphotungstic acid (PTA). Due to the interconnected porous structure and highly permeable polymer network, the PVA/PTA‐PH hydrogel has good repetitive compressibility and rapid shape recovery when in contact with water. Combined with light‐absorbing nanoparticles, the PVA/PTA‐PH hydrogel presents an impressive solar evaporation rate of 3.876 kg m−2 h−1 and a photothermal conversion efficiency of ≈94% under 1‐sun irradiation. With 3D‐shape recovery and highly efficient water transport, the compressed hydrogel can be quickly unfolded without human intervention and restored to five times the original size for the working state. The good portability, excellent seawater desalination performance, and simple preparation process are anticipated to make the PVA‐/PTA‐PH hydrogel a promising material to continuously and conveniently produce pure water from seawater.

Spherical Design‐Driven Scalable Solar‐Powered Water Treatment with Salt Self‐Cleaning and Light Self‐Adaptivity

AbstractInterfacial solar evaporation, harnessing sunlight to induce water molecule evaporation, holds great promise for sustainable solar energy conversion. However, challenges such as reduced efficiency and instability due to salt accumulation, inadequate water transport, and the high cost of advanced nanostructured solar evaporators collectively hinder the sustainable and large‐scale practical use of this technology. Herein, an eco‐friendly, floatable 3D solar seawater evaporator is developed by innovatively incorporating a lightweight foam ball enclosed in a porous cellulose hydrogel. The 3D evaporator achieves a high water evaporation rate of ≈2.01 kg m−2 h−1 under 1 Sun, owing to its super high photothermal efficiency of 117.9% and efficient internal water transport channels. Even at a 0° simulated solar angle, the 3D evaporator maintains 85.8% of the evaporation rate at a 90° simulated solar angle. Moreover, the salt self‐cleaning capability is realized by the autonomous rotation caused by salt deposition. Particularly, the 3D evaporator can be fabricated over a large area and maintain seawater evaporation performance and structural integrity for 28 days. This study provides novel economically feasible and sustainable large‐scale solutions for interfacial solar‐powered seawater treatment.

Multifunctional biomass-based solar evaporator with enhanced sterilization performance for solar-driven clean water evaporation

Solar-driven interfacial evaporation presents an important technology in dealing with the global freshwater crisis due to its highly effective solar-to-vapor conversion, minimal environmental impact, and off-grid application. However, the high material cost, complex fabrication process, and lack of effective sterilization limit its scaled-up application. Herein, we demonstrate an efficient multi-functional, biomass-based (MBB) photothermal evaporator using CuO nanoparticle-modified, carbonized peanut shells in a low-cost and scabble way. With highly efficient solar absorption, localized heating, and water transport, the MBB photothermal evaporator achieved a ∼ 91.1 % solar-to-vapor efficiency under sunlight illumination with a clean water production rate of 1.46 kg m−2 h−1. A similar evaporation rate of 1.41 kg m−2 h−1 was obtained directly from wastewater or seawater with a wide range of pH (2–14). The experiments showed that the collected water is relatively clean with complete removal of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by damaging bacterial cell walls. 99 % of methylene blue and rhodamine B can also be effectively removed, benefiting from the formation of chelating and hydrogen bonds with the OH groups on the surface of MBB. This research provides a new environmentally sustainable photothermal evaporator for water purification, specifically designed to benefit economically stressed communities.

Water Transport Management in a Bipolar Membrane for CO2 Electrolysis Application

Bipolar membranes (BPMs) offer significant potential for electrochemical technologies, especially in CO2 electrolysis. Their unique ability to create pH gradients provides optimum chemical microenvironments at the cathode and anode for efficient, cheap and sustainable CO2 electrolysis. However, state-of-the-art BPMs are limited in their performance due to phenomena such as membrane degradation and membrane dehydration leading to low ionic conductivity, and hence their complete potential for various electrochemical technologies is yet to be realized. Previous studies have identified water transport as one of the main factors limiting the performance of BPM. A multi-physics model of BPM can serve as a useful tool to gain a comprehensive understanding of different performance limiting factors and thereafter propose solutions to overcome these limitations. The goal of the present study is to provide model based design guidelines for a BPM that facilitates efficient water transport, making it a suitable candidate for integration into a zero-gap CO2 reduction electrolyzer operating at industrial-grade performance levels.We have built a 1-D continuum model of a BPM kept in an aqueous (bi)carbonate electrolyte solution, incorporating physical phenomena such as water-dependent transport of ions and neutral species, field-enhanced homogeneous reactions (water-dissociation and acid-base reactions) along with CO2 phase transfer reaction at the BPM-aqueous electrolyte interfaces. The continuum model employs Poisson-Nernst-Planck equations to resolve local chemical species concentration. The effect of the electric field on the equilibrium dissociation constants of various charge-generating homogenous reactions is incorporated. This becomes important especially at interfaces within the domain where a sharp increase in electric field is observed. Unlike previous modeling studies, we also incorporate mass-conservation equation for water transport to resolve local water concentration inside the BPM. Local water concentration influences the transport of species in the BPM through their water-dependent activity and diffusivity. The electric potential distribution is resolved by incorporating water-dependent local permittivity of the BPM.Our model investigates both the reverse and forward bias operational modes of the BPM. In alignment with the experimental observation, in the reverse bias regime, the model identifies a distinct initial phase where current density is limited, with the majority of the current carried by protons and hydroxide ions at low overpotentials. As the potential increases, there's a rapid increase in current density, indicating a breakdown regime caused by an electric field-enhanced water dissociation reaction at the BPM interface. At even higher potentials, the polarization curve enters a third phase where the current density saturates characterized by water transport limitation. This aspect of the BPM polarization curve is uniquely captured by our model. Conversely, in the forward bias mode, as expected we do not observe any limitations due to mass transport, since water is generated at the bipolar junction. Here, the model forecasts a saturation of CO2 in the electrolyte, leading to gas bubbles forming at the BPM interface. To address the issue of water transport limitation, we conduct various parametric studies focusing on different membrane characteristics, such as individual layer thicknesses and their ion exchange capacities. The outcomes of these analyses provide crucial guidelines for optimizing these parameters and enhancing water management in BPM-based systems.

KOH Activated Carbon Coated 3D Wood Solar Evaporator with Highest Water Transport Height and Evaporation Rate for Clean Water Production.

The water evaporation rate of 3D solar evaporator heavily relies on the water transport height of the evaporator. In this work, a 3D solar evaporator featuring a soil capillary-like structure is designed by surface coating native balsa wood using potassium hydroxide activated carbon (KAC). This KAC-coated wood evaporator can transport water up to 32cm, surpassing that of native wood by ≈8 times. Moreover, under 1kWm-2 solar radiation without wind, the KAC-coated wood evaporator exhibits a remarkable water evaporation rate of 25.3kgm-2h-1, ranking among the highest compared with other reported evaporators. The exceptional water transport capabilities of the KAC-coated wood should be attributed to the black and hydrophilic KAC film, which creates a porous network resembling a soil capillary structure to facilitate efficient water transport. In the porous network of coated KAC film, the small internal pores play a pivotal role in achieving rapid capillary condensation, while the larger interstitial channels store condensed water, further promoting water transport up more and micropore capillary condensation. Moreover, this innovative design demonstrates efficacy in retarding phenol from wastewater through absorption onto the coated KAC film, thus presenting a new avenue for high-efficiency clean water production.

Ontogenesis and variation of wood ‘parenchymatization’ in Cochlospermum vitifolium (Bixaceae)

Summary Axial parenchyma proliferation (non-lignified parenchyma) in wood has been characterized for only a few species. In the present study, we characterized the proliferation, ontogeny, and seasonal variation of wood axial parenchyma in Cochlospermum vitifolium (Bixaceae). This study included material from natural populations from different sites in Mexico. We analyzed the wood anatomy and development in stems of different ages, and monthly sampling of the main stem during the growing season. The results show that the wood anatomy of C. vitifolium is characterized by features associated with efficient water transport, such as wide vessels and low vessel frequency. The wood has a high storage and radial transport capacity. Axial parenchyma is abundant and constitutes the main cell type of the wood. Rays are wide and tall with a high starch content. Ontogenetic development of the wood showed that non-lignified axial parenchyma differentiates after secondary growth has been established. Parenchyma proliferation does not occur in an axially orderly fashion and the results suggest that there is a relationship between maximum proliferation and precipitation. We found high variation in wood parenchymatization between trees. The maximum parenchymatization and succulence was found in trees with larger stem diameter. The ecological and ontogenetic implications of wood parenchymatization are discussed.

Functional characterization of plant specific Indeterminate Domain (IDD) transcription factors in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

Plant-specific transcription factors (TFs) are responsible for regulating the genes involved in the development of plant-specific organs and response systems for adaptation to terrestrial environments. This includes the development of efficient water transport systems, efficient reproductive organs, and the ability to withstand the effects of terrestrial factors, such as UV radiation, temperature fluctuations, and soil-related stress factors, and evolutionary advantages over land predators. In rice and Arabidopsis, INDETERMINATE DOMAIN (IDD) TFs are plant-specific TFs with crucial functions, such as development, reproduction, and stress response. However, in tomatoes, IDD TFs remain uncharacterized. Here, we examined the presence, distribution, structure, characteristics, and expression patterns of SlIDDs. Database searches, multiple alignments, and motif alignments suggested that 24 TFs were related to Arabidopsis IDDs. 18 IDDs had two characteristic C2H2 domains and two C2HC domains in their coding regions. Expression analyses suggest that some IDDs exhibit multi-stress responsive properties and can respond to specific stress conditions, while others can respond to multiple stress conditions in shoots and roots, either in a tissue-specific or universal manner. Moreover, co-expression database analyses suggested potential interaction partners within IDD family and other proteins. This study functionally characterized SlIDDs, which can be studied using molecular and bioinformatics methods for crop improvement.