Effect Of Variable Practice Research Articles

Stimulus variability improves generalization following response inhibition training.

The present study examined the effect of stimulus variability and practice order on generalization to novel stimuli following a single session of response inhibition training. Ninety-six young adults practiced the Go/No-go task online in three training conditions: (1) constant (N = 32)-inhibition practiced on one stimulus; (2) variable-blocked (N = 32)-inhibition practiced on 6 stimuli, each in a separate block; and (3) variable-random (N = 32)-inhibition practiced on 6 stimuli in random order. Generalization was measured by comparing groups on inhibition of novel stimuli and a trained stimulus immediately and 24h after training. Consistent with our hypothesis, the variable-random and the variable-blocked groups showed better generalization to the novel items than the constant group, demonstrating the benefit of stimulus variability. The variable-random group also showed better generalization than the variable-blocked group, demonstrating the benefit of presenting stimuli in random order. Participants' capacity for working memory maintenance was found to modulate the effect of practice order. While the benefit of variability was retained 24h after training, the effect of order was not. Results also show generalization to (1) different type of stimuli using the same task and (2) the same stimuli on a different response inhibition task (the Stop-Signal Task), however, the effect of variable practice and order were not evident in these cases. The study findings illustrate the advantage of using variable stimuli presented in random order for generalization and suggest that these principles of motor learning can be applied to learning of cognitive skills.

Effects of Variable Practice on Kinematics and Accuracy of Throwing in Boys with Developmental Coordination Disorder

Many children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) cannot throw, which often prevents them from taking part in age-appropriate activities. The present research examined the degree to which variable practice, embedded in the Motor Schema Theory (Schmidt, 1975), would positively affect movement effectiveness, and coinciding accuracy, as well and parametrization of spatial and temporal aspects of control. Nine boys diagnosed with DCD (M = 10.7 years, SD = 1.0) participated in a pre-test, ten 30 minute training sessions, post-test, and a transfer test. Only pre- and post-tests involved kinematic data collection and measurement of accuracy. The variable practice involved throwing a tennis ball from a distance of 5 meters at 3 different targets (40 cm vs 35 cm vs 25 cm), positioned in three different locations. The transfer test was presented in a new environment with novel conditions. Results reveled improvement in movement effectiveness, at the group level, however when individual data was examined not all participants benefited to the same degree, especially when the transfer test was considered. All participants improved in regards to their accuracy. The changes in the outcome coincided with changes in spatial parametrization at the elbow, but not the shoulder. Also, higher velocity of the ball and angular velocity at the elbow were evident. From the clinical standpoint, the present study highlighted the importance of introducing context relevant variability in the learning program, however the decline in performance in the transfer test indicates that more research is warranted to understand the lasting effects on motor schema. 

Learning a specific, individual and generalizable coordination function: evaluating the variability of practice hypothesis in motor learning.

Constant and variable practice conditions have been hypothesized to lead to different learning outcomes between them but similar within. However, experiments have found that within a constant practice condition, participants can show highly individual outcomes (i.e., coordination functions). Considering the contradictory evidence on the effects of variable practice, we tested the idea that measures of the individual learned outcome would be required to provide a full explanation for results in transfer tests rather than or in addition to the group task-related conditions on which individuals practiced. Twenty-four participants were divided into three groups with different practice conditions (constant, varied distance of the target, and varied angle of the target) and for 5days performed a task of throwing for precision to a target. Pre-, post-, and transfer tests were used to evaluate our hypothesis. The results showed that although the group measures could predict certain aspects of the transfer tests, the coordination function characteristics were required to show higher levels of explanatory power. This finding supports the view that learning involves a specific, individual and generalizable solution although there are aspects of learning that are specific to the condition of practice.

Effects of variable practice on the motor learning outcomes in manual wheelchair propulsion.

BackgroundHandrim wheelchair propulsion is a cyclic skill that needs to be learned during rehabilitation. It has been suggested that more variability in propulsion technique benefits the motor learning process of wheelchair propulsion.The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of variable practice on the motor learning outcomes of wheelchair propulsion in able-bodied participants. Variable practice was introduced in the form of wheelchair basketball practice and wheelchair-skill practice. Motor learning was operationalized as improvements in mechanical efficiency and propulsion technique.MethodsEleven Participants in the variable practice group and 12 participants in the control group performed an identical pre-test and a post-test. Pre- and post-test were performed in a wheelchair on a motor-driven treadmill (1.11 m/s) at a relative power output of 0.23 W/kg. Energy consumption and the propulsion technique variables with their respective coefficient of variation were calculated. Between the pre- and the post-test the variable practice group received 7 practice sessions. During the practice sessions participants performed one-hour of variable practice, consisting of five wheelchair-skill tasks and a 30 min wheelchair basketball game. The control group did not receive any practice between the pre- and the post-test.ResultsComparison of the pre- and the post-test showed that the variable practice group significantly improved the mechanical efficiency (4.5 ± 0.6% → 5.7 ± 0.7%) in contrast to the control group (4.5 ± 0.6% → 4.4 ± 0.5%) (group x time interaction effect p < 0.001).With regard to propulsion technique, both groups significantly reduced the push frequency and increased the contact angle of the hand with the handrim (within group, time effect). No significant group × time interaction effects were found for propulsion technique. With regard to propulsion variability, the variable practice group increased variability when compared to the control group (interaction effect p < 0.001).ConclusionsCompared to a control, variable practice, resulted in an increase in mechanical efficiency and increased variability. Interestingly, the large relative improvement in mechanical efficiency was concomitant with only moderate improvements in the propulsion technique, which were similar in the control group, suggesting that other factors besides propulsion technique contributed to the lower energy expenditure.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12984-016-0209-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effect Of Variable Practice On The Motor Learning Process In Manual Wheelchair Propulsion

Handrim wheelchair propulsion is a cyclic skill that needs to be learned during rehabilitation. It has been suggested that a higher intra-individual variability benefits the motor learning process of wheelchair propulsion. PURPOSE: The goal of the current study was to determine the effect of variable practice, in the form of wheelchair basketball and skills training, on the motor learning process of wheelchair propulsion in novice able-bodied participants. Motor learning was operationalized as improvements in mechanical efficiency (ratio of power output and energy expenditure) and propulsion technique. METHODS: 11 Participants performed a pre-test, 7 practice sessions and a post-test. During the practice sessions, participants performed one-hour of variable practice, consisting of five wheelchair-skill tests and a 30 min wheelchair basketball game. Pre- and post-test were performed in a wheelchair on a motor-driven treadmill (1.11 m/s) at a relative power output of 0.23 W/kg. Energy consumption and the propulsion technique variables were calculated. RESULTS: Comparison of the pre- and the post-test showed that variable practice resulted in a 27% relative increase in mechanical efficiency (4.5 ± 0.6 vs. 5.7 ± 0.7%, p<0.001). With regard to propulsion technique, the push frequency reduced (65.4 ± 12.3 vs. 57.8 ± 8.6 pushes/min, p=0.011), the contact angle of the hand with the handrim increased (67.0 ± 8.6 vs. 77.6 ± 9.1°, <0.001) and the braking torque at (de)coupling reduced (-1.1 ± 0.8 vs. -0.5 ± 0.4 Nm, <0.001). No significant changes were found for the positive work (9.0 ± 1.8 vs. 9.7 ± 1.8 J, p=0.369) and peak torque per push (12.5 ± 2.2 vs. 11.6 ± 1.9 Nm, p=0.084) CONCLUSION: The present study showed that variable practice results in an increase in mechanical efficiency and an improvement in propulsion technique. Interestingly the large relative improvement in mechanical efficiency was concomitant with only moderate improvements in the propulsion technique, suggesting that other factors besides propulsion technique contributed to the higher efficiency. It may be that variable practice facilitated the exploitation of the dynamics of the task and improved coordination, which may have contributed to a less straining propulsion

Effects of variable practice and declarative knowledge on sensorimotor adaptation to rotated visual feedback

It has been shown before that sensorimotor adaptation to rotated vision is more generalized when subjects point at eight, rather than at four or less targets. Here we evaluate whether an even more variable practice has additional benefits. One group of subjects pointed at eight targets, and another group executed unconstrained arm movements throughout the workspace. We found no advantage of the latter group with respect to adaptive progress, persistence of adaptation without visual feedback, or transfer of adaptation to a new motor task. We therefore concluded that eight targets are sufficient to yield generalized adaptation. To determine the role of declarative knowledge for sensorimotor adaptation, subjects from both above groups were questioned regarding the nature of the distortion after they completed the experiment. We found that correct responders showed better adaptive progress, more persistence, but the same transfer as incorrect responders. We therefore concluded that the benefit of declarative knowledge is task-specific and short-lived, and is therefore probably related to strategic control rather than to an adaptive recalibration of the sensorimotor system.

“The effect of variable practice” on motor performance in school children and college students

The purpose of this study was to examine how the effect of variable practice had influence on motor performance in school children and college students, by using a grading task of a standing broad jump.Subjects of the constant condition practiced a jump of the 2/6 maximum jumping distance 60 times in the acquisition phase. Subjects of the random condition practiced a jump of the 1/6, 2/6, and 4/6 maximum jumping distance 60 times in random order in the acquisition phase. In the transfer phase, on the other hand, subjects of both conditions practiced a jump of the 3/6 maximum jumping distance 10 times Samples were 60 females and 60 males consisting of 20 members of three age groups; 9 and 12 years old children and college students (ages 19-23). Each age group was divided into two condition groups.Though the constant group outperformed the random group in the acquisition phase, the random group outperformed the constant group in the transfer phase. Children were more effective for performance than college students in the transfer phase. And female college students were more effective for performance than male college students in the transfer phase.

Schema Theory and the Effect of Variable Practice in String Teaching

Schmidt (1975) postulates that motor skills are learned as schemas, which should be better learned if built up from experiencing a wide variety of actions. This variable practice hypothesis is tested in teaching string pupils selected skills, namely the ability to control loudness, tempo and intonation. Results suggest a positive conclusion in the first two instances, but are more ambivalent in the third. There is some discussion of the implications for developing effective practising skills, to help learning become more productive and interesting, and in the application of such skills to the goal of musical and expressive performance.

The Effects of Variable Practice on the Performance of a Basketball Skill

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image sizeKey Words: practice schedulesschema theoryvariable practice

Effects of Variable Practice on Retention and Motor Schema Development in down Syndrome Subjects

Portions of Schmidt's schema theory, the effects of variable practice on retention and ability to learn a novel motor task, were tested using Down syndrome subjects. 23 subjects ranged in mental and chronological ages from 3.0 to 5.1 yr. and 4.6 to 22 yr., respectively. IQs ranged from 32 to 62. The two throwing tasks were closed, discrete movements requiring no feedback or error detection during movement. Subjects were randomly assigned to a specific-practice, variable-practice, or control group. Specific group subjects practiced 100 trials from the test-target location. Variable-practice subjects also practiced 100 trials but from four different practice locations. The control group practiced an unrelated kicking activity. All subjects participated in identical pretests, posttests, and retention tests to assess accuracy on these throwing tasks. A standard archery target was used to score tosses. To examine the effects of practice on a novel task, two target conditions, or tasks, were employed. On Task A the subject tossed a bean bag at the archery target placed flat on the floor. For Task B, the novel task, the target was placed upright on the wall. Subjects were assigned higher scores for tosses landing closer to the center of the target. Analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between groups on Task A pretest or posttest. Significance was detected for the main effect of group for Task B. However, the Scheffé post hoc test indicated that the simple main effects were nonsignificant. This research did not support Schmidt's schema theory.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)