Effects Of Task Repetition Research Articles

Manipulating task implementation variables with incipient Spanish language learners: A classroom-based study

A growing body of research has shown a positive role of task-supported instruction in second language (L2) learning (Ellis, 2003a; Loewen, 2015; Van Den Branden, 2006). From a pedagogical perspective, recycling or repeating parts of teaching materials is common practice and theoretical support for such practice is emerging (Bygate and Samuda, 2005). However, determining which aspects to repeat during task-supported interaction that fosters interaction-driven learning opportunities while maintaining student interest is currently underexplored. Further, few studies have considered learners’ perception during task completion. The current study thus examined the effects of task repetition on the production and resolution of language-related episodes (LREs) over time. English-speaking (first language, L1) students of Spanish (second language, L2) from two intact Spanish as a foreign language (FL) classroom ( n = 28) were assigned to one of the following task repetition groups: task with repetition (same task/same content) or task with procedural repetition (same task/new content). Learner–learner interaction produced during two-way decision-making tasks were transcribed and coded for LREs. Learner perception data was collected following task completion and analysed qualitatively. The results indicated that the task repetition had greater benefits on the occurrence and resolution of lexis-based LREs, but that both groups benefited similarly in terms of producing and resolving form-based LREs. Results are discussed in light of speech processing models and pedagogical implications for task-based instruction in FL settings are examined.

Negative feedback on task repetition: ESL vs. EFL child settings

ABSTRACTResearch on task repetition in second language (L2) learning has shown the benefits of this practice for subsequent L2 learning. However, as with much L2 research, most studies on task repetition have focused on adults and there is a dearth of research in this area involving young children. This study examines the effect of task repetition on two forms of negative feedback (NF), recasts and negotiation of meaning (NoM) strategies, available to children in an English as a second language (ESL) setting (Australia) and in an English as a foreign language (EFL) setting (Spain). Participants were 7–8 years old and worked in pairs on a spot-the-differences task at two testing times (time 1 [T1] and time [T2]). Differences were reported in the provision and use of NF from T1 to T2, and between the ESL and EFL group: feedback was provided and used significantly more at T2, and especially by the ESL group, but EFL learners made more errors and used different NoM strategies than ESL learners. The results are discussed in light of recent research on task repetition.

Task repetition and its impact on EFL children’s negotiation of meaning strategies and pair dynamics: an exploratory study

Little research has been carried out on the effect of task repetition on young learners’ negotiation of meaning (NoM) strategies and on pair dynamics. The present study aims to fill this gap by analysing the interaction of 60 dyads of third- and fourth-year primary English as a foreign language learners (8–9, 9–10 years old, respectively) while they perform communicative tasks and assessing whether task repetition has an impact on those constructs. The participants, with a beginner proficiency level established by standardised tests, completed different tasks in dyads at two testing times: at Time 1, all participants completed a spot-the-difference task. At Time 2, 21 dyads repeated exactly the same task, 16 dyads completed a similar task with a different content (procedural repetition group) and the last 23 dyads completed a guessing game. The video-recorded oral production was transcribed and codified for NoM strategies (clarification requests, confirmation and comprehension checks, self- and other-repetition, L1 use) and pair dynamics. Results indicate that, overall, there were no statistically significant differences between production at Time 1 and at Time 2 regarding NoM strategies. Regarding pair dynamics, task repetition seems to have a positive effect on collaborative patterns.

Task repetition effects on L1 use in EFL child task-based interaction

Research has shown that tasks provide second language (L2) learners with many opportunities to learn the L2. Task repetition has been claimed to benefit L2 learning since familiarity with procedure and/or content gives learners the chance to focus on more specific aspects of language. Most research on task repetition has focused on adult populations, but child learners are an under-researched group. The same goes for first language (L1) use during L2 interaction, which has been mainly studied among adult L2 learners whereas little is known about L1 use among child L2 learners interacting while they complete communicative tasks. This study explores to what extent and for which purposes children in an English as a foreign language (EFL) setting use their shared L1 (Spanish). Furthermore it also considers how task repetition (exact vs. procedural task repetition) influences their L1 use. Forty-two EFL learners worked in pairs while they completed a spot-the-difference task twice. Our findings showed a significant decrease in L1 use when learners repeated the task in the two conditions but a minor effect of task repetition on the functions the L1 served.

The differential effects of two types of task repetition on the complexity, accuracy, and fluency in computer-mediated L2 written production: a focus on computer anxiety

Previous task repetition studies have primarily focused on how task repetition characteristics affect the complexity, accuracy, and fluency in L2 oral production with little attention to L2 written production. The main purpose of the study reported in this paper was to examine the effects of task repetition versus procedural repetition on the complexity, accuracy, and fluency (henceforth CAF) in low–intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ task-based, computer-mediated L2 written production. A secondary purpose was to examine the relationship between computer anxiety and EFL learners’ development of CAF in L2 writing. The study employed a pretest-posttest design with 70 EFL learners from a language learning institution in Iran. The participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: task repetition or procedural repetition. The task repetition group repeated the same task procedure with the exact same content five times, whereas the procedural repetition group repeated the same task procedure with different content. The participants were also asked to complete the Computer Anxiety Rating Scale to measure their computer anxiety. The results revealed the following: (1) the beneficial effects of both tasks on the participants’ L2 written production, (2) the differential effects of task repetition on the participants’ writing CAF when compared with procedural repetition, and (3) no statistically significant relationship between computer anxiety and the participants’ development of CAF in task-based, computer-mediated L2 written production. Implications are discussed, and avenues for future research are outlined.

Don’t Stress me out! Anxiety, Information Processing and Learning

High levels of arousal and anxiety can affect an individual’s ability to process information and learn new skills. The present study used a high platform lunge task to examine the effect of task repetition on state anxiety and how an individual’s ability to process visual and auditory information is affected by arousal level. Twenty-six females (21.8 ± 2.8 yrs) performed six lunges from a six-meter platform to a suspended trapeze. Measures of state anxiety were recorded during the 5-minute rest period between each attempt. During the 10-second countdown to jump, the subjects were exposed to five visual and five auditory pieces of information that they were asked to recall 60 seconds after the lunge. The results indicated that individuals’ response to repeating an anxiety-evoking task is highly variable. When performing skills that induce anxiety, optimal information processing appears to occur in the third or forth attempt, as high levels of anxiety occur in earlier attempts and complacency can occur with further attempts. Visual cues are processed more readily than auditory cues at all levels of arousal, highlighting the importance of the inclusion of visual instructional strategies. The findings are informative for understanding best practice when teaching and learning skills that evoke anxiety.

Focus on form through task repetition in TBLT

Because there has been little research on focus on form during the post-task phase in task-based language teaching, this experimental study investigates the effects of task repetition after having directed learners’ attention to form during the main task. The study comprises two interventions, where each consisted of a task with a focus on a particular language structure. Forty-eight ninth-grade students learning German as a foreign language were randomly assigned to two conditions: one group repeated a similar task (R); the other group did not (NR). The first intervention targeted the German dative case after a preposition; the second German comparatives. Pretests, immediate and delayed posttests measured metalinguistic knowledge, written and oral accuracy as well as oral fluency. Results showed that on written accuracy and metalinguistic knowledge, the R condition outperformed the NR condition on both structures. No significant differences between conditions were found on oral accuracy and fluency.

The Effects of Cognitive Complexity on Summary Quality by Korean College Students

The study reported here examined the effects of cognitive complexity on the quality of summary writing among 50 Korean college students in the context of genre repetition. The cognitive complexity was varied in terms of text type (either expository or argumentative) and in terms of length (either limited to 70 words or not limited). These variables were adopted to test Robinsons Cognition Hypothesis (CH) (2001a, 2002, 2003a, 2005a, 2007a). CH proposes that there are certain factors that influence cognitive complexity. The manipulation of these factors in a task leads to diverse demands. A range of studies have considered the effects of task complexity on learners language production in terms of whether it becomes more complex, accurate, and/or fluent. However, little research has been conducted on summary quality from the perspective of the CH. Four independent variables were selected to reflect summary quality, namely copied items(CO), inaccurate ideas(IA), main idea selection(SE), and creative idea invention(I). The frequency of each variable was measured in summaries written under four conditions with different cognitive demands. The 50 participants were divided into four groups, each of which wrote summaries under a different cognitive load. The participants in every group had to write six summaries in the same genre. The first and the sixth summaries of each participant were analyzed to investigate summary quality and the effects of task repetition. A repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to determine the effects of repetition, and ANCOVA was used to control initial score differences related to the effects of text type and length limit. The results showed that task repetition significantly influenced SE out of four summary quality factors. The results suggest that differences in cognitive complexity have an effect on summary quality.

Effects of task repetition on event-related potentials in somatosensory Go/No-go paradigm

We investigated the effects of task repetition on the N140 and P300 components of event-related potentials (ERPs) in somatosensory Go/No-go paradigms. A Go or No-go stimulus was presented to the second or fifth digit of the left hand, respectively, at the same probability, and subjects had to respond by pushing a button with their right thumb as quickly as possible only after the presentation of a Go stimulus. The condition comprised seven sessions of recordings, and subjects were allowed to relax for five minutes after one session. The behavioral data for the reaction time (RT), standard deviation of RT, and error rates showed the absence of an effect by task repetition. In ERP waveforms, the amplitudes of N140 and P300 decreased with task repetition, and the latency of P300 was delayed by task repetition. There was no significant effect of task repetition on the peak latency of N140.Changes in amplitude and latency values in N140 and P300 during Go/No-go paradigms reflected changes in the neural activation of response execution and inhibition processing with task repetition.

Effects of task repetition on learners’ attention orientation in L2 oral production

Task repetition facilitates learners’ performance, at least temporarily: Since learners are already familiar with the content of the task at the initial enactment, they are capable of focusing their attention on linguistic form during the following enactment. However, the analysis in previous studies treated various aspects of ‘form’ as one package. This study examined learners’ attention shifts during repeated task engagement by methodological triangulation. The experiment required 28 Japanese learners of English to perform narrative tasks twice. Learners’ performance was analysed, and the protocol data elicited by stimulated recall were coded along their attention orientations. The result partially supported the form-focused effects of task repetition: learners focused more on the syntactic encoding process and less on the conceptualizing process at the second task enactment when they engaged in the same task twice. Possible theoretical and pedagogical implications are discussed.

The Effect of Task Repetition on Complexity and Accuracy of Iranian High-intermediate EFL Learners’ Narrative Writing Performance

Developments in the area of task-based language teaching (TBLT) research have heightened the need to focus on the task implementation factors in the sense that they are effective in successful language performance to occur. The present study aimed to examine the effect of task repetition, as one of the task implementation variables, on Iranian high-intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' narrative writing performance. To this end, a pre-test/post-test quasi-experimental design was applied; 40 participants, with 18 to 25 years of age, were non-randomly selected and considered as two groups of the experimental and control ones. Both groups took a pre-test to ensure their homogeneity in narrative writing skill. Then, for 14 sessions, the experimental group was engaged in repetitive practice of narrative writing tasks. Three weeks after the end of the treatment, both groups performed the two post-tests. The results of independent samples t -tests showed that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control one in regard with complexity on the two post-test phases (p<.05), however; the results were not significant in the case of accuracy. The findings have important pedagogical implications for EFL learners and teachers, as well as useful future research directions in EFL writing for the researchers.

The Effect of Task Repetition on Fluency And Accuracy of EFL Saudi Female Learners’ Oral Performance

This study aimed to examine the effect of task repetition on foreign language output. Twenty eight Saudi female students in the Preparatory Year (PY) at King Saud university, were randomly selected to conduct an oral information-gap task. The participants were asked to perform the task two times with two-week interval between the two performances. The oral performances were transcribed and analyzed to measure fluency and accuracy of language output. The collected data were coded for the two dimensions of oral production (fluency and accuracy), based on the established criteria. A within group dependent t-test for paired samples was computed to find out whether there were significant differences between the mean scores of the first and the second performances. The findings revealed that task repetition resulted in significant differences in the subjects’ oral discourse in terms of fluency and accuracy. The findings of the current study recommend that researchers and teachers might find it very beneficial to devote some of their time to design effective task repetition to help language learners improve their oral production.

A magnetoencephalography study of visual processing of pain anticipation.

Anticipating pain is important for avoiding injury; however, in chronic pain patients, anticipatory behavior can become maladaptive, leading to sensitization and limiting function. Knowledge of networks involved in pain anticipation and conditioning over time could help devise novel, better-targeted therapies. With the use of magnetoencephalography, we evaluated in 10 healthy subjects the neural processing of pain anticipation. Anticipatory cortical activity elicited by consecutive visual cues that signified imminent painful stimulus was compared with cues signifying nonpainful and no stimulus. We found that the neural processing of visually evoked pain anticipation involves the primary visual cortex along with cingulate and frontal regions. Visual cortex could quickly and independently encode and discriminate between visual cues associated with pain anticipation and no pain during preconscious phases following object presentation. When evaluating the effect of task repetition on participating cortical areas, we found that activity of prefrontal and cingulate regions was mostly prominent early on when subjects were still naive to a cue's contextual meaning. Visual cortical activity was significant throughout later phases. Although visual cortex may precisely and time efficiently decode cues anticipating pain or no pain, prefrontal areas establish the context associated with each cue. These findings have important implications toward processes involved in pain anticipation and maladaptive pain conditioning.

Effects of Task Repetition on L2 Oral (in Written Form) Production in Computer-Mediated Communication

The purpose of this study was to develop a three-phase integrative task-based course for achieving communicative effectiveness in two aspects. One aspect was to combine E-simulation with Facebook online chat in a computerised environment. E-activities may not only captivate participants and allow them to be immersed in friendly user interfaces, but also permit participants to engage in pre-task and online planning. Consequently, E-activities may enhance production performance in the complexity and accuracy dimensions, which were based on those described in previous studies. The other aspect was to observe the effects on the L2 production of learners according to the aforementioned computer-mediated communication (CMC) settings by manipulating task repetition. Whereas rehearsal can improve the performance of a task, it was also used to distinguish between the differences among tasks performed with the same partner or with a different partner. The theory of task-based language learning and teaching (TBLT) was investigated to determine whether further modification or extension was needed in these CMC settings. The results of this study showed that task repetition enhanced the performance of learners regarding syntactic variety and lexical complexity. Task repetition had more positive effects on the changed-partner group than it had on the same-partner group.

Analysis of tremor in motor learning task

Abstract Hand-eye coordination is required in many skilled tasks. Individual differences affect the performance of people at work and leisure, for example, during assembly jobs or sports. The aim of this study was to determine whether motor learning can change the physiological action of hand tremor. Tremor is a repetitive and stereotyped movement, with regular frequency and amplitude, but there are different types of tremors with pattern variation. The results were calculated by participants’ time-on and time-off the target, the average distance from the center of the target, and the frequency of oscillatory movement of a cursor (tremor). The results of this study indicate a statistically significant (p&lt;0.05) influence of effect of task repetition on improvement of motor control and reduction of a high-amplitude tremor and an increase of a low-amplitude tremor. The assessed individuals achieved more than 50% better outcomes of a hand-eye coordination task in the final trials when compared with the initial trials. The dynamics of motor learning tend to rise, with a steady level of a 1-h interval between trials.

General anesthesia as a possible GABAergic modulator affects visual processing in children

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) inhibitory interneurons play an important role in visual processing, as is revealed by studies administering drugs in human and monkey adults. Investigating this process in children requires different methodologies, due to ethical considerations. The current study aimed to investigate whether a new method, being general anesthesia using Sevoflurane, can be used to trace the effects of GABAergic modulation on visual brain functioning in children. To this aim, visual processing was investigated in children aged 4–12 years who were scheduled for minor urologic procedures under general anesthesia in day-care treatment. In a visual segmentation task, the difference in Event-Related Potential (ERP) response to homogeneous and textured stimuli was investigated. In addition, psychophysical performance on visual acuity and contrast sensitivity were measured. Results were compared between before and shortly after anesthesia. In two additional studies, effects at 1 day after anesthesia and possible effects of task-repetition were investigated. ERP results showed longer latency and lower amplitude of the Texture Negativity (TN) component shortly after compared to before anesthesia. No effects of anesthesia on psychophysical measurements were found. No effects at 1 day after anesthesia or of repetition were revealed either. These results show that GABAergic modulation through general anesthesia affects ERP reflections of visual segmentation in a similar way in children as benzodiazepine does in adults, but that effects are not permanent. This demonstrates that ERP measurement after anesthesia is a successful method to study effects of GABAergic modulation in children.

Does mental rotation ability depend on sensory-specific experience?

No study has investigated the link between vision and touch with respect to spatial abilities using a within-subjects design. With this design, we compared participants’ tactile and visual mental rotation abilities, as measured by the Mental Rotations Test (Vandenberg & Kuse, 1978). Participants in four groups completed two consecutive sessions under no-switch (visual-visual or tactile-tactile) or switch conditions (visual-tactile or tactile-visual) to determine whether mental rotation abilities assessed in Session 2 depend on previous sensory-specific experiences (Session 1). Analysis of response accuracy revealed that all groups improved their performance in Session 2. Analysis of response time showed an improvement in visual and tactile performance during Session 2 for participants who first performed the task with the same modality. No effect of task repetition appeared for participants who performed in two different sensory conditions. These results reveal that mental rotation ability partly depends on sensory-specific conditions and that ability developed in a sensory-specific condition does not necessarily transfer to another sensory condition.

Investigating the nature and time-course of the modality shift effect between vision and touch

It is well known that stimuli grab attention to their location, but do they also grab attention to their sensory modality? The modality shift effect (MSE), the observation that responding to a stimulus leads to reaction time benefits for subsequent stimuli in the same modality, suggests that this may be the case. If noninformative cue stimuli, which do not require a response, also lead to benefits for their modality, this would suggest that the effect is automatic. We investigated the time-course of the visuotactile MSE and the difference between the effects of cues and targets. In Experiment 1, when visual and tactile tasks and stimulus locations were matched, uninformative cues did not lead to reaction time benefits for targets in the same modality. However, the modality of the previous target led to a significant MSE. Only stimuli that require a response, therefore, appear to lead to reaction time benefits for their modality. In Experiment 2, increasing attention to the cue stimuli attenuated the effect of the previous target, but the cues still did not lead to a MSE. In Experiment 3, a MSE was demonstrated between successive targets, and this effect decreased with increasing intertrial intervals. Overall, these studies demonstrate how cue- and target-induced effects interact and suggest that modalities do not automatically capture attention as locations do; rather, the MSE is more similar to other task repetition effects.

Does Virtual Reality Enhance Exercise Performance, Enjoyment, and Dissociation? An Exploratory Study on a Stationary Bike Apparatus

The present study aimed at testing the general assumption that virtual reality can enhance the experience of exercising. More specifically, we tested the effects of sensory input (music and video feedback) during physical training on performance, enjoyment, and attentional focus by means of a computerized ergometer coupled with VR software. Twelve university students participated in the study. The experimental procedure consisted in a 2 × 3 × 4 mixed design, with two types of feedback (video feedback vs. video feedback and music), three course phases (e.g., flat, uphill, and downhill) and four sessions (task repetition). The virtual feedback was a video film of the course that participants had to complete. Video display speed was proportional to the participant's pedaling speed. Force feedback, applied to the real bicycle wheel, was proportional to the instantaneous course slope. The results showed a positive effect of task repetition on participants' performance only when video feedback was associated with listening to music. In an attempt to objectively assess attentional focus, we analyzed participants' gaze orientation. Gaze analysis showed a reduction in the time spent gazing at video feedback across sessions. Associating video feedback with freely chosen music led to a differential use of video feedback as a function of exercise intensity. Finally, sensory stimulation appeared to have a dissociative role on participants' attentional focus during exercise, but adding music listening to video feedback appears to be necessary to maintain (long term) the participants' commitment to the task. The results are discussed in terms of the functional status of sensory stimulation during exercise, and its interactions with exercise intensity, participants' performance, and attentional focus. They also suggest that gaze analysis is one promising way to access attention allocation and its relationships with performance.

Auditory evoked potentials dissociate rapid perceptual learning from task repetition without learning

Performance improvement during an hour of auditory perceptual training is accompanied by rapid physiological changes. These changes may reflect learning or simply task repetition independent of learning. We assessed the contribution of learning and task repetition to changes in auditory evoked potentials during a difficult speech identification task and an easy tone identification task. We posited that only task repetition effects would occur in the tone task but that task repetition and learning would interact in the speech task. Speech identification improved with practice (increased sensitivity d' with a constant response bias β). This behavioral improvement coincided with a decrease in the amplitude of sensory evoked responses (N1, P2) and a decrease in the amplitude of a slow wave (peak=320 ms after onset) over the left frontal and parietal sites. Results show rapid physiological changes associated with learning, distinct from changes related to task repetition.