Effects Of Parental Depression Research Articles

Reciprocal associations between parental depression and child cognition: Pathways to children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms.

Parental depression is a risk factor for children's cognitive and psychological development. Literature has found reciprocal relations between parental depression and child psychopathology and effects of parental depression on children's cognition. The present study is the first to examine reciprocity among parental depression and child cognition, and pathways to child psychopathology. Structural equation models were conducted using data from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, a nationally representative sample of 3,001 economically marginalized families. Measures were collected in four waves from 14 months to 10-11 years. Reciprocal associations emerged between maternal and paternal depression at from 14 months to 5 years. Reciprocal parental depression was associated with greater psychopathology at age 10-11. Maternal depression predicted poorer child cognition, which indirectly predicted increased depression in mothers of children aged 3-5 through paternal depression, and in fathers at age 3, through earlier paternal depression. This study was unable to parse within- and between-person effects. Additionally, data for paternal depression was limited to ages 2 and 3. Findings emphasize the transactional nature of child cognition and child and parent psychopathology, supporting family focused intervention and prevention efforts that target parent psychopathology and child cognition.

Perceived parental depression and adolescents’ excessive smartphone use: The mediating role of adolescents’ depression and anxiety

ABSTRACT Previous studies show that parents play a critical role in developing adolescents’ excessive media use. However, few studies have been conducted on the effect of parental depression on adolescents’ excessive smartphone use. Thus, this study aimed to investigate whether perceived parental depression can predict adolescents’ excessive smartphone use and whether adolescents’ psychological problems, such as depression and anxiety, account for the association between perceived parental depression and adolescents’ excessive smartphone use from a sample of 1,156 adolescents. The hypothesized model was tested using hierarchical regression and the PROCESS macro (Model 4). Hierarchical regression analysis showed that perceived parental depression positively predicts adolescents’ excessive smartphone use. Additionally, mediation analyses revealed that the effects of perceived parental depression on adolescents’ excessive smartphone use were mediated by adolescents’ depression and anxiety. The results provide evidence of the direct effect of perceived parental depression on adolescents’ excessive smartphone use and the indirect effects of adolescents’ depression and anxiety on this relationship. These results have meaningful implications from the theoretical and applied perspectives. The directions for future research are also discussed.

Associations of parental depression during adolescence with cognitive development in later life in China: A population-based cohort study.

Prior research has underscored negative impacts of perinatal parental depression on offspring cognitive performance in early childhood. However, little is known about the effects of parental depression during adolescence on offspring cognitive development. This study used longitudinal data from the nationally representative China Family Panel Studies (CFPS). The sample included 2,281 adolescents aged 10-15 years (the median age was 13 years with an interquartile range between 11 and 14 years) in 2012 when their parents were surveyed for depression symptoms with the 20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). The sample was approximately balanced by sex, with 1,088 females (47.7%). We examined the associations of parental depression in 2012 with offspring cognitive performance (measured by mathematics, vocabulary, immediate word recall, delayed word recall, and number series tests) in subsequent years (i.e., 2014, 2016, and 2018) using linear regression models, adjusting for various offspring (i.e., age, sex, and birth order), parent (i.e., parents' education level, age, whether living with the offspring, and employment status), and household characteristics (i.e., place of residence, household income, and the number of offspring). We found parental depression during adolescence to be significantly associated with worse cognitive performance in subsequent years, in both crude and adjusted models. For example, in the crude models, adolescents whose mothers had depression symptoms in 2012 scored 1.0 point lower (95% confidence interval [CI]: -1.2 to -0.8, p < 0.001) in mathematics in 2014 compared to those whose mothers did not have depression symptoms; after covariate adjustment, this difference marginally reduced to 0.8 points (95% CI: -1.0 to -0.5, p < 0.001); the associations remained robust after further adjusting for offspring earlier cognitive ability in toddlerhood (-1.2, 95% CI: -1.6, -0.9, p < 0.001), offspring cognitive ability in 2012 (-0.6, 95% CI: -0.8, -0.3, p < 0.001), offspring depression status (-0.7, 95% CI: -1.0, -0.5, p < 0.001), and parents' cognitive ability (-0.8, 95% CI: -1.2, -0.3, p < 0.001). In line with the neuroplasticity theory, we observed stronger associations between maternal depression and mathematical/vocabulary scores among the younger adolescents (i.e., 10-11 years) than the older ones (i.e., 12-15 years). For example, the association between maternal depression and 2014 vocabulary scores was estimated to be -2.1 (95% CI: -2.6, -1.6, p < 0.001) in those aged 10-11 years, compared to -1.2 (95% CI: -1.6, -0.8, p < 0.001) in those aged 12-15 years with a difference of 0.9 (95% CI: 0.2, 1.6, p = 0.010). We also observed a stronger association of greater depression severity with worse mathematical scores. The primary limitations of this study were the relatively high attrition rate and residual confounding. In this study, we observed that parental depression during adolescence was associated with adverse offspring cognitive development assessed up to 6 years later. These findings highlight the intergenerational association between depression in parents and cognitive development across the early life course into adolescence.

The influence of parenting styles and parental depression on adolescent depressive symptoms: A cross-sectional and longitudinal approach

Depression often emerges during early adolescence and is one of the most common mental health problems. The present study investigated the influence of parenting styles and parental depression on depressive symptoms during adolescence and young adulthood, using both a cross-sectional and a longitudinal approach. Data were obtained from the Survey of Adolescent Life in Västmanland Cohort study and comprised 1603 adolescents who completed questionnaires at two time points (ages 16–18 and ages 19–21). In the cross-sectional approach, a positive parenting style (Warmth, Structure, Autonomy support) was associated with less depressive symptoms, and a negative parenting style (Rejection, Chaos, Coercion) and parental depression were associated with more depressive symptoms in 16–18-year-old adolescents. The effect of parental depression was stronger among adolescent females. In the longitudinal approach, a protective effect was found, where a positive parenting style at adolescent ages 16–18 was associated with less depressive symptoms at ages 19–21, even when controlling for initial depressive symptomatology. These findings may make an important contribution to treatment programmes and family-based prevention strategies related to adolescent depressive symptomatology, particularly regarding the potential long-term protective effects of positive parenting style in middle and late adolescence.

The effect of parental depression on the problem behaviour and academic performance of children with asthma.

AimThis study attempts to determine the factors affecting problem behaviour and academic performance of children with asthma.DesignThis is a cross‐sectional study used actor and partner interdependence model.MethodsData of 236 children and their parents from the 10th Panel Study on Korean Children were used, and analysis was performed using SPSS 20.0 and AMOS 20.0. We have received panel data from the Korea Institute of Child Care and Education on April 10th, 2019.ResultsParental depression had actor and partner effects on marital conflict, and marital conflict perceived by the father had actor and partner effects on parent–child interactions, while marital conflict perceived by the mother had only actor effect on parent–child interactions. Parent–child interaction perceived by both fathers and mothers was found to affect the problem behaviour of children. The problem behaviour of children affects academic performance.

The Roles of Parent-and-Child Mental Health and Parental Internet Addiction in Adolescent Internet Addiction: Does a Parent-and-Child Gender Match Matter?

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between parental mental health, particularly depression, and Internet addiction (IA) among adolescents taking into consideration adolescent mental health and parental IA as possible mediating factors. Of particular interest was the effect of parent-and-child gender match on these relationships.Materials and Methods: This was a population-based parent-and-child dyad health survey utilizing a random sampling technique. Adolescent IA was measured by the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) designed by Young. The mental health status of the parents was assessed using the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS). Data were analyzed using Structural Equation Model (SEM) techniques with stratification by parent-and-child gender match.Results: One thousand ninety-eight (n = 1,098) parent-and-child dyads were recruited, and useful information was obtained. The mean IAT score was 28.6 (SD = 9.9) for parents and 41.7 (SD = 12.4) for adolescents. Results of the SEM suggested that the effect of parental depression on adolescent IA was mediated through adolescent mental health mainly through adolescent stress (regression weight = 0.33, p < 0.001) and less so through adolescent depression (regression weight = 0.19, p < 0.001) or parental IA (regression weight = 0.13, p < 0.001). Further analysis revealed that these mediating relationships are more significantly manifested in the father-and-son and mother-and-daughter dyads.Conclusions: Result suggested that the relationship between parental mental health and adolescent IA is complex and that adolescent mental health and parental IA also play important roles as mediating factors. These results have direct implications on the treatment and prevention of IA among young people.

The effects of parental depression and anxiety on child behavior from 6 to 12 years old: a review

ABSTRACT Background: Parental depression and anxiety are relevant factors that may influence child externalizing and internalizing behavior; also influenced by stigmatized knowledge about such mental illnesses. Objectives: To identify which instruments were used in studies on the effects of parental depression and anxiety on child behavior from 6 to 12 years old; to analyze the main results in offspring's behaviors on articles published between 2011 to 2019. Methods: we did a literature review searching PubMed, BVS, ISI, and Scopus databases; keywords: “Maternal Depression”, “Maternal Anxiety”, “Paternal Depression”, “Paternal Anxiety”, “Mother's (also Mothers') Depression”, “Mother's (also Mothers') Anxiety”, “Father's (also Fathers') Depression”, “Father's (also Fathers') Anxiety”, “Parental Depression”, “Parental Anxiety” AND “Child Behavior”, in Portuguese and English. Results: We found 1,500 articles, after applying the inclusion criteria, n = 23 were selected and analyzed. 78.3% of studies were performed with mothers, 17.4% with both parents, and 0% with fathers alone. Different instruments were used to assess depression or anxiety in parents, and child behavior. Discussion: studies that included both parents and parental anxiety assessments were scarce; no study in this review evaluated only fathers. Social abilities, personality traits, self-conceptions, and knowledge about anxiety and depression could enhance the quality of studies' results.

Interaction between adoptive mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms in risk for children's emerging problem behavior.

The effect of parental depression on children's adjustment has been well documented, with exposure during early childhood particularly detrimental. Most studies that examine links between parental depression and child behavior are confounded methodologically because they focus on parents raising children who are genetically related to them. Another limitation of most prior research is a tendency to focus only on the effects of maternal depression while ignoring the influence of fathers' depression. The purpose of this study was to examine whether infants' exposure to both parents' depressive symptoms, and inherited risk from birth mother internalizing symptoms, was related to school age children's externalizing and internalizing problems. Study data come from a longitudinal adoption study of 561 adoptive parents, biological mothers, and adopted children. Adoptive fathers' depressive symptoms during infancy contributed independent variance to the prediction of children's internalizing symptoms and also moderated associations between adoptive mothers' depressive symptoms and child externalizing symptoms.

Understanding Familial Risk for Depression

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is among the most prevalent, debilitating, and costly of all illnesses worldwide. Investigators have made considerable progress in elucidating psychological and biological correlates of MDD; however, far less is known about factors that are implicated in risk for depression. Given the high risk for MDD associated with a family history of depression, investigators have worked to understand both the effects of parental depression on offspring and the mechanisms that might underlie familial risk for MDD. In this article, we describe the evolution of investigators’ understanding of the psychobiological functioning of children of depressed parents, and we present recent findings concerning cognitive and neural aspects of risk for MDD using our high-risk sample as a context and foundation for this discussion. We integrate these data in a conceptualization of mechanisms underlying risk for depression, focusing on the constructs of emotion dysregulation and stress reactivity. Recognizing the 25-year anniversary of the Association for Psychological Science, we place this presentation in the context of the past 25 years of research on depression. We conclude by discussing the significance of emotion dysregulation and stress reactivity for studying risk for depression, for developing approaches to prevent MDD, and for moving theory and research in this field forward.

Test of a model of the effects of parental illness on youth and family functioning.

Parental illness (PI) may have adverse impacts on youth and family functioning. Research in this area has suffered from the absence of a guiding comprehensive framework. This study tested a conceptual model of the effects of PI on youth and family functioning derived from the Family Ecology Framework (FEF; Pedersen & Revenson, 2005). A total of 85 parents with multiple sclerosis and 127 youth completed questionnaires at Time 1 and 12 months later at Time 2. Structural equation modeling results supported the FEF with regards to physical-illness disability. Specifically, the proposed mediators (role redistribution, stress, and stigma) were implicated in the processes that link parental disability to several domains of youth adjustment. The results suggest that the effects of parental depression (PD) are not mediated through these processes; rather, PD directly affects family functioning, which in turn mediates the effects onto youth adjustment. Family functioning further mediated between PD and youth well-being and behavioral-social difficulties. Although results support the effects of parental-illness disability on youth and family functioning via the proposed mediational mechanisms, the additive effects of PD on youth physical and mental health occur through direct and indirect (via family functioning) pathways, respectively.

Effects of parental depression during early childhood: development and validation of an observational parenting rating system

Effects of parental depression during early childhood: development and validation of an observational parenting rating system

Parental Depression in the Context of Divorce and the Impact on Children

The impact of divorce on children has been well documented over the past 30 years. Divorcing parents who are also experiencing clinical depression often have a compromised ability to parent well and to give the children needed support. Children are then impacted both by the divorce itself and the effects of parental depression. They are at higher risk of numerous problems including poorer physical health, deficits in academic performance not attributable to intellectual limitations, poor social functioning, conduct disorder and other disruptive behavior problems, phobias, and other anxiety disorders. Because children of depressed parents are at higher risk for depression themselves, they should be monitored for depressive symptoms. If there are concerns, the child should be assessed by a mental health professional.

The Effects of Parental Depression and Parenting Practices on Depressive Symptoms and Metabolic Control in Urban Youth with Insulin Dependent Diabetes

Examine relationships between parental depressive symptoms, affective and instrumental parenting practices, youth depressive symptoms and glycemic control in a diverse, urban sample of adolescents with diabetes. Sixty-one parents and youth aged 10-17 completed self-report questionnaires. HbA1c assays were obtained to assess metabolic control. Path analysis was used to test a model where parenting variables mediated the relationship between parental and youth depressive symptoms and had effects on metabolic control. Parental depressive symptoms had a significant indirect effect on youth depressive symptoms through parental involvement. Youth depressive symptoms were significantly related to metabolic control. While instrumental aspects of parenting such as monitoring or discipline were unrelated to youth depressive symptoms, parental depression had a significant indirect effect on metabolic control through parental monitoring. The presence of parental depressive symptoms influences both youth depression and poor metabolic control through problematic parenting practices such as low involvement and monitoring.

African American and non-Hispanic white children's health: integrating alternative explanations

Objectives. Three questions were examined: does a structural equation model (SEM) of the links among family resources (socioeconomic status, SES), sociocultural (perception of quality of care), structural (health insurance coverage and health care utilization), parental psychological resources (parental depression and perception of quality of parenting), and child health apply similarly across blacks and whites? Do the items used to indicate the factors exhibit differences across groups? Is race/ethnicity associated with differences in structural paths? Design. Data on 18,092 black and white children (ages 0–11) from the 2002 National Survey of American Families data set was used. A two-stage, eight-step multigroup SEM was used to examine the associations among family resources, sociocultural, structural, parental psychological resources and child health status. Results. First, the patterning of the structural model applied similarly to black and whites. Second, there were some differences in factor loadings across groups. Third, although sociocultural, structural, and parental psychological resources mediated the link between SES and health status, the effects of SES on these mediators differed between blacks and whites; but there was no difference between groups in the effects of SES on health status. Fourth, perception of quality of care and health care use mediated the effects of health insurance on health and the effects of parental depression and quality of parenting on health status, respectively. Fifth, health care use mediated the effects of perception of quality of care on health status. Finally, health insurance was linked with a greater increase in health care use among blacks than whites; and perception of quality of care was strongly associated with better health for blacks than for whites. Conclusions. When sociocultural, structural, and parental psychological constructs are adjusted for, there are no significant differences in SES effects on health status between groups. Perception of quality of care is an important determinant of health care utilization, given health insurance coverage and SES. Finally, parental depression and behaviors also determine perception of care and health care utilization decisions.

Transmission and Treatment of Depression

Transmission and Treatment of Depression

Families at High and Low Risk for Depression

The familial nature of early-onset major depressive disorder (MDD) has been documented in numerous family studies of adults and is supported by studies of offspring of parents with MDD, for whom the risk is more than 3-fold. None of the published high-risk studies have gone beyond 2 generations, and few have a longitudinal design. We report results of an approximately 20-year follow-up of families at high and low risk for depression. The first 2 generations were interviewed 4 times during this period. The offspring from the second generation are now adults and have children of their own, the third generation of the original cohort. To examine the familial aggregation of psychiatric disorders and functioning in grandchildren by their parents' and grandparents' depression status. Longitudinal, retrospective cohort, family study. One hundred sixty-one grandchildren and their parents and grandparents. Lifetime rate of psychiatric disorder and functioning in grandchildren, stratified by parental and by grandparental depression status, collected by clinicians blind to diagnoses of previous generations and to previous interviews. There were high rates of psychiatric disorders, particularly anxiety disorders, in the grandchildren with 2 generations of major depression, with 59.2% of these grandchildren (mean age, 12 years) already having a psychiatric disorder. The effect of parental depression on grandchildren's outcomes differed significantly with grandparental depression status. Among families with a depressed grandparent, increased risk of anxiety (relative risk, 5.17; 95% confidence interval, 1.4-18.7; P = .01) and increased risk of any disorder (relative risk, 5.52; 95% confidence interval, 2.0-15.4; P = .002) were observed in grandchildren with a depressed parent as compared with those with nondepressed parents. The severity of parental depression, as measured by impairment, significantly increased the rate of a mood disorder in these grandchildren (relative risk, 2.44; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-5.5; P = .03). In contrast, among grandchildren with nonfamilial depression, ie, depressed parents with no depressed grandparents, there was no significant effect of parental MDD on grandchildren diagnoses. However, parental MDD, regardless of whether families had a depressed grandparent, had a significant impact on the grandchildren's overall functioning. Potential confounding variables did not affect the strength of the association with parental and grandparental depression. The association between parental MDD and child diagnosis is moderated by grandparental MDD status. The rates of psychopathology are highest in grandchildren of parents and grandparents with a moderately to severely impairing depression. Anxiety disorders are the early sign of psychopathology in the young grandchildren. Early interventions in the offspring of 2 generations affected with moderately to severely impairing MDD seem warranted. This familial group may be the target for neuroimaging, genetic, and other biological studies.

Age- and gender-specific effects of parental depression: A commentary.

Age- and gender-specific effects of parental depression: A commentary.