Effect Of Menstrual Cycle Phase Research Articles

Oral contraceptives positively affect mood in healthy PMS-free women: A longitudinal study

ObjectiveMenstrual cycle phase and oral contraceptives (OC) use influence mood and cognition and these effects may be moderated by the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) genotype. The effect of menstrual cycle phase on mood may be increased if participants know that this is the focus of study. We assessed aspects associated with reproductive depression such as mood, interpersonal sensitivity, affect lability and depressive cognitions in MR-genotyped OC-users and naturally cycling (NC) women in a carefully masked design. MethodsA homogenous sample of healthy, PMS-free, pre-menopausal MR-genotyped women (n=92) completed online questionnaires eight times during two consecutive cycles. ResultsThe masking of the research question was successful. OC-users did not differ significantly from NC women in positive and negative affect at the time of assessment, personality characteristics (e.g. neuroticism) or mental and physical health. Both groups reported more shifts in anger in the first cycle week (p<0.001; ηp2=0.08). Compared to NC women, OC-users reported fewer mood-shifts between depression and elation in the mid-luteal phase of the menstrual cycle (p=0.002; ηp2=0.10) and had fewer ruminating thoughts at all phases (p=0.003; ηp2=0.11). Effects of MR-genotype were not significant after correction for multiple comparisons. ConclusionOC users scored more favorably on measures associated with reproductive depression. OC users also showed a decreased affect variability possibly indicating an emotional blunting effect, which is in line with previous reports on affect-stabilizing effects of OC. Limitations were loss of cases due to irregularities in the menstrual cycle length and possible confounding by the ‘survivor effect’, since almost all OC-users took OC for more than a year.

The Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Processing of Emotional Images

Abstract. The ovarian hormone levels can affect subjective ratings and modulate late positive potential (LPP) amplitudes evoked by images of varying appeal. The present study examines how different progesterone levels influence the valence, arousal ratings and mean LPP amplitudes evoked by pleasant, neutral, and unpleasant images. Twenty-three healthy females were grouped by menstrual cycle days (estradiol and progesterone levels): 10 were included in the follicular phase group and 13 were included in the luteal phase group. Each female rated the affective images in terms of valence and arousal while event-related potentials (ERPs) were measured. The valence ratings of pleasant images were higher in follicular phase group than in luteal, but the same effect was not seen in the arousal ratings. The arousal ratings to unpleasant images were higher than those to pleasant in luteal, but not in follicular phase group. However, the mean amplitude of the early LPP (450–700 ms) was significantly greater to pleasant than to neutral and unpleasant stimuli, but did not differ between follicular and luteal phase groups. The mean amplitude of the late LPP (700–950 ms) was significantly larger to pleasant and unpleasant compared to neutral images, but did not differ between menstrual cycle phase groups. Correlation analysis showed a significant negative relationship between progesterone levels and arousal ratings of pleasant and unpleasant images in luteal phase group. Arousal scores for unpleasant images negatively correlated with mean LPP amplitudes to unpleasant images at Pz site in the luteal phase group. The present study provides evidence that subjective ratings of affective images of different attractiveness could be influenced by female menstrual cycle phase, but mean amplitudes of LPP (450–950 ms) are not affected. However, results of correlational analysis suggest that valence, arousal ratings and mean LPP amplitudes are susceptible to the influence of hormone progesterone in luteal phase.

Influence of sex, menstrual cycle, and oral contraceptives on cerebrovascular resistance and cardiorespiratory function during Valsalva or standing.

Women experience orthostatic intolerance more than men, and they experience faintness more in the early follicular [i.e., low-hormone (LH)] than luteal [i.e., high-hormone (HH)] phase of the menstrual cycle. Men (n = 13, 25.8 ± 1.8 yr old) and women in the LH (days 2-5; placebo) and HH (days 18-24; high dose) phases of the menstrual cycle with (OC; n = 14, 22.0 ± 0.8 yr old) or without (NOC; n = 12, 21.8 ± 0.5 yr old) oral contraceptive (OC) use underwent the Valsalva maneuver and a supine-sit-stand protocol. Blood pressure, normalized stroke volume [stroke volume index (SVi)], cardiac output index, heart rate, end-tidal CO2, and middle cerebral artery (MCA) blood flow velocity were measured. When subjected to the Valsalva maneuver, all women had a greater increase in diastolic and mean MCA blood flow velocity than men (P ≤ 0.065), with no significant effect of menstrual cycle phase or OC use. When subjected to the supine-sit-stand protocol, men had lower MCA blood flow velocity (P < 0.038) than all women, and SVi was higher in men than in the NOC group in all postures (P < 0.011) and in the OC group in the LH phase of the menstrual cycle during standing (P = 0.010). Only men experienced higher resistance index (P < 0.001) and pulsatility index (P < 0.001) with standing. The OC group had lower end-tidal CO2 (P = 0.002) than the NOC group (P = 0.030) and men (P ≤ 0.067). SVi (P = 0.004) and cardiac output index (P = 0.008) were higher in the OC than NOC group. A tendency toward a lower mean MCA blood flow velocity (P = 0.058) and higher SVi (P = 0.059) and pulsatility index (P = 0.058) was noted in the HH than LH phase. Mean arterial pressure was higher in the OC than NOC group in the LH phase (P = 0.049) and lower in the HH than LH phase (P = 0.014). Our results indicate that cycling estrogens/progestins can influence ventilatory, cardiovascular, and/or cerebrovascular physiology.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have found sex differences in the cerebrovascular response to the Valsalva maneuver and standing. Men have greater cerebral vasoconstriction (or women have greater cerebral vasodilation) during late phase II of the Valsalva maneuver, and the cerebrovascular resistance index increases in men, but not in women, during standing. Furthermore, our findings indicate that both the menstrual cycle phase and oral contraceptive use can influence cardiovascular function both at rest and during active standing.

The effects of menstrual cycle phase on physical performance in female soccer players.

BackgroundFemale soccer has grown extensively in recent years, however differences in gender-specific physiology have rarely been considered. The female reproductive hormones which rise and fall throughout the menstrual cycle, are known to affect numerous cardiovascular, respiratory, thermoregulatory and metabolic parameters, which in turn, may have implications on exercise physiology and soccer performance. Therefore, the main aim of the present study was to investigate potential effects of menstrual cycle phase on performance in soccer specific tests.MethodsNine sub elite female soccer players, all of whom have menstrual cycles of physiological length; performed a series of physical performance tests (Yo-Yo Intermittent endurance test (Yo-Yo IET), counter movement jump (CMJ) and 3x30 m sprints). These were conducted at distinct time points during two main phases of the menstrual cycle (early follicular phase (FP) and mid luteal phase (LP)) where hormones contrasted at their greatest magnitude.ResultsYo-Yo IET performance was considerably lower during the mid LP (2833±896 m) as compared to the early FP (3288±800 m). A trend towards significance was observed (p = 0.07) and the magnitude based inferences suggested probabilities of 0/61/39 for superiority/equality/inferiority of performance during the mid LP, leading to the inference of a possibly harmful effect. For CMJ (early FP, 20.0±3.9 cm; mid LP 29.6±3.0 cm, p = 0.33) and sprint (early FP, 4.7±0.1 s; mid LP, 4.7±0.1 s, p = 0.96) performances the results were unclear (8/24/68, 48/0/52, respectively).ConclusionThe results of this study are in support of a reduction in maximal endurance performance during the mid LP of the menstrual cycle. However, the same effect was not observed for jumping and sprint performance. Therefore, consideration of cycle phase when monitoring a player’s endurance capacity may be worthwhile.

The combined effects of menstrual cycle phase and acute stress on reward-related processing

We investigated the combined effects of menstrual cycle phase and acute stress on reward-related processing, employing a monetary incentive delay task in combination with EEG. Females participated during late follicular and late luteal phases, performing in both control and stress conditions. We found evidence for both independent and interaction effects of phase and stress on reward-related brain activity. Phase modulated the sensitivity to feedback valence, with a stronger signaling of negative performance outcomes in the late follicular versus late luteal phase. In contrast, in the control condition, the late luteal versus late follicular phase was associated with a heightened sensitivity to reward condition, with enhanced performance monitoring in potential-reward versus no-reward trials. Stress decreased attentional preparation during reward anticipation, but increased the influence of reward condition on the processing of positive performance outcomes. We found no evidence for an increased sensitivity to stress during the late luteal versus late follicular phase.

Soccer-related performance in eumenorrheic Tunisian high-level soccer players: effects of menstrual cycle phase and moment of day.

This study aimed to examine the combined effects of menstrual cycle phase and moment of day on female soccer players' performances in the five-jump test (5JT), the repeated shuttle-sprint ability test (RSSA), and the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (YYIRT1). Eleven eumenorrheic Tunisian high-level soccer players volunteered to participate. Each subject individually participated in three testing periods: one in the early follicular phase (menses), one in the late follicular phase, and another in the luteal phase. In each period, two test sessions were conducted: one at 07:30 and another at 17:30. The testing routines included the 5JT, the RSSA, and the YYIRT1. None of the measured variables were altered due to menstrual cycle phase (all P>0.05). Mean time during RSSA was significantly lower in the afternoon session compared to the morning session (8.48±0.27 s and 8.77±0.34 s, respectively, P<0.001), while 5JT performance was significantly higher in the afternoon compared to the morning (9.08±0.58 m and 8.60±0.56 m, respectively, P<0.001). Soccer-specific endurance as well as jumping and repeated sprinting ability of Tunisian female high-level soccer players are not affected due to menstrual cycle phase neither in the morning nor in the afternoon.

Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Plasma Lipid and Lipoprotein Levels in Regularly Menstruating Women.

Physiological cyclic variability in levels of sex hormones during a menstrual cycle may possibly have an impact on lipids, lipoprotein levels and therefore on cardiovascular health status of females. To ascertain the effect of menstrual cycle phases on the levels of cardiovascular risk predictors i.e., plasma lipids and lipoproteins in healthy menstruating women. In the present study, 111 healthy regularly menstruating females aged 15-45 years were examined at two points of a menstrual cycle i.e., in the follicular phase (10th day) and in the luteal phase (22nd day) to find out the plasma levels of lipids and lipoproteins. The data were statistically analysed using paired t-test. A significant decrease in the mean levels of Total Cholesterol (TC) (p=0.006), Low Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (LDL-C) (p=0.004), TC/High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (HDL-C) (p=0.006), Low Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (LDL)/HDL (p=0.01), and Triglyceride (TG)/HDL (p=0.02) was observed in the luteal phase compared to the follicular phase while TG (p=0.18), HDL-C (p=0.16). VLDL-C (p=0.17) did not show a significant difference although lower levels were observed in the luteal phase of TG and VLDL-C and higher levels for HDL-C. The present findings reveal high levels of oestrogen in the luteal phase compared to follicular phase of menstrual cycle. Clinicians should take menstrual cycle phase in account when inferring a women biomarker measurement in the analysis of cardiovascular diseases, particularly females possessing marginal levels. Moreover research studies should take the menstrual cycle phase in consideration which may be a confounding factor in framing and concluding studies on reproductive age group women.

Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Knee Muscle Activity during One Leg Landing in Non-athletic Females

Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Knee Muscle Activity during One Leg Landing in Non-athletic Females

Evaluation of tubal patency with hysterosalgingograpy (HSG) in baboons: effect of menstrual cycle phase

Functional obstruction at the utero-tubal junction may affect the quality of tubal imaging and success of transcervical permanent contraception procedures. We evaluated whether menstrual cycle phase influences visualization of tubal patency by HSG in baboons.

Psychosocial Profile of Women with Premenstrual Syndrome and Healthy Controls: A Comparative Study.

According to modern bio-psychosocial theories of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), the aim of this study is to investigate systematically associations between selected psychosocial factors and premenstrual symptoms in different menstrual cycle phases. Several psychosocial variables were assessed, in a sample of German women with PMS (N = 90) and without premenstrual complaints (N = 48) during the follicular and luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Presence of PMS was indicated by analysis of contemporary daily ratings of premenstrual symptom severity and impairment for one menstrual cycle. Regarding perceived chronic stress (ƞ 2 = 0.34), self-efficacy (ƞ 2 = 0.12), and two dimensions of self-silencing (0.06 ≤ ƞ 2 ≤ 0.11) analyses revealed only a significant effect of group. Regarding body dissatisfaction and somatosensory amplification, a significant effect of group (0.07 ≤ ƞ 2 ≤ 0.16) and additionally a group by menstrual cycle phase interaction (ƞ 2 = 0.06) was identified. Regarding relationship quality, a significant effect of menstrual cycle phase (ƞ 2 = 0.08) and a group by menstrual cycle phase interaction (ƞ 2 = 0.06) was demonstrated. In respect to sexual contentment, acceptance of premenstrual symptoms, and the remaining two dimensions of self-silencing statistical analyses revealed no effects at all. Linear multiple regression analysis revealed that 20% of the variance in PMS symptom severity was explained by the psychosocial variables investigated. Body dissatisfaction (ß = 0.26, p = 0.018) and the divided self-dimension of self-silencing (ß = 0.35, p = 0.016) were significant correlates of PMS severity. Results of this study are consistent with previous research and additionally show patterns of associations between specific psychosocial factors and PMS in dependence of menstrual cycle phase that have not been researched before. The role of the psychosocial variables we investigated in regard to the development and maintenance of PMS should be clarified in future research.

Menstrual Cycle Affects Arterial Stiffness After High-intensity Resistance Exercise

Acute high -intensity resistance exercise increases arterial stiffness, which is one potential mechanism of the increased arterial stiffness resulting from resistance exercise training. Estrogen concentrations in women may also influence arterial stiffness. Therefore, changes in arterial stiffness after high-intensity resistance exercise might differ according to the menstrual cycle. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of menstrual cycle phase on arterial stiffness after high-intensity resistance exercise. METHODS: Nine eumenorrheic females participated in this study (age 21.3 ± 0.8 years). None of the participants were taking oral contraceptives. Menstrual cycles were categorized according to serum estrogen and progesterone concentrations. Maximal muscle strength was assessed using one repetition maximum (1RM) strength tests 1 week before starting this study. The participants performed five sets of five repetitions using 80% of the 1RM bench press and five sets of ten repetitions using 70% of the 1RM biceps curl with an inter-set rest periods of 2 min at each of the menstrual, ovulatory, and luteal phases. Brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV; an index of arterial stiffness), blood pressure, and heart rate were measured before (baseline) and at 30 and 60 min after completing the resistance exercise. RESULTS: Serum estrogen concentrations were significantly higher at the ovulatory and luteal phases than at the menstrual phase (ovulatory and luteal phases vs. menstrual phase; 192 ± 58, 170 ± 32 vs. 40 ± 7 pg/ml, P<0.05). The baPWV at the menstrual phase was significantly increased from baseline at 30 min (baseline vs. after 30 min; 952 ± 16 vs. 1061 ± 29 cm/sec, P<0.05) after the resistance exercise and persisted for 60 min (baseline vs. after 60 min; 952 ± 16 vs. 1044 ± 23 cm/sec, P<0.05), whereas the ovulatory and luteal phases did not significantly differ before and after the resistance exercise. Blood pressure and heart rate did not significantly differ before and after high-intensity resistance exercise during any phase. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that arterial stiffness induced by high-intensity resistance exercise changes according to phases of the menstrual cycle.

Individual differences in self-reported difficulty sleeping across the menstrual cycle.

The effect of menstrual cycle phase on sleep has been studied for decades; however, individual differences in the associations between sleep and menstrual phase have not been well studied. In addition, the associations between changes in sleep and other physiological and psychological factors that vary as a function of menstrual phase have not been thoroughly assessed. This study explored individual differences in daily self-reports of difficulty sleeping across the menstrual cycle, as well as associations between daily changes in difficulty sleeping and psychological/vegetative and somatic symptoms. Participants (n = 213 females, mean age = 21.29 ± 4.01years) completed daily online questionnaires assessing` sleep, psychological and physical symptoms for two menstrual cycles. Two patterns of menstrual cycle-related self-reported difficulty sleeping emerged in addition to women who showed no cyclical change in self-reported difficulty sleeping: a perimenstrual increase and a mid-cycle increase. All psychological/vegetative symptoms and some of the somatic symptoms showed significant associations with self-reported difficulty sleeping. These findings highlight the importance of examining individual differences in sleep across the menstrual cycle and the significant contribution of a wide range of menstrual cycle-related psychological/vegetative and somatic symptoms.

Ovarian hormones, menstrual cycle phase, and smoking: a review with recommendations for future studies.

Cigarette smoking continues to be the leading cause of preventable morbidity and mortality. Similar to other addictive substances, the prevalence of cigarette smoking is greater among men than women, yet women are less successful at quitting smoking. Preclinical and clinical research suggests that ovarian hormones (i.e., estradiol and progesterone), which fluctuate over the course of the menstrual cycle, may contribute to these sex differences. Specifically, research suggests that progesterone may protect against cigarette smoking and nicotine addiction; whereas estradiol may underlie enhanced vulnerability. In this review, we discuss new research on ovarian hormone and menstrual cycle phase effects on smoking-related responses and behavior in women, including studies examining neural responses to smoking cues, hormonal influences on medication-assisted smoking cessation, and acute smoking abstinence. We highlight innovative studies with strong research methodology and provide suggestions for future research that may allow evidence-based knowledge for immediate translation to the clinic to guide novel, hormonally-informed treatment strategies. Thus, rigorous scientific study holds the potential to reduce relapse rates, thus improving the health and saving the lives of the many thousands of women who unfortunately do not respond to current treatments.

Effect of menstrual cycle phase on glucose kinetics in healthy women & women with premenstrual symptoms.

Objective: To compare the blood glucose levels during the two phases of the menstrual cycle between healthy women and patients with premenstrual syndrome (PMS).Methods: From January of 2012 to the August of 2013, a descriptive cross-sectional study was performed among staff of tertiary care hospital.Inclusion Criteria: 1)100 women aged 18 to 45 years, 2) Regular Menstrual cycle.Exclusion Criteria: 1) Menopause 2) Patient on Oral Contraceptive pills.After approval from IEC and informed consent from the 100 enrolled subjects with either the most severe symptoms of PMS or healthy controls. 2ml of venous blood was collected on fasting condition during the follicular phase (5-11 days of menstrual cycle)and the luteal phase of the cycle (19-28 days menstrual cycle) and analyzed the serum concentrations of glucose by using the glucose oxidase method.Results: The statistical analysis was done using student's paired T test. P value less than 0.0001was taken as significant.No significant differences between the demographic data of the control and PMS groups were observed. The mean concentrations of glucose were significantly different during the follicular and luteal phases.

Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Background Parenchymal Uptake at Molecular Breast Imaging

The level of Tc-99m sestamibi uptake within normal fibroglandular tissue on molecular breast imaging (MBI), termed background parenchymal uptake (BPU), has been anecdotally observed to fluctuate with menstrual cycle. Our objective was to assess the impact of menstrual cycle phase on BPU appearance. Premenopausal volunteers who reported regular menstrual cycles and no exogenous hormone use were recruited to undergo serial MBI examinations during the follicular and luteal phase. A study radiologist, blinded to cycle phase, categorized BPU as photopenic, minimal mild, moderate, or marked. Change in BPU with cycle phase was determined, as well as correlations of BPU with mammographic density and hormone levels. In 42 analyzable participants, high BPU (moderate or marked) was observed more often in luteal phase compared to follicular (P = .016). BPU did not change with phase in 30 of 42 participants (71%) and increased in the luteal phase compared to follicular in 12 (29%). High BPU was more frequent in dense breasts compared to nondense breasts at both the luteal (58% [15 of 26] vs. 13% [2 of 16], P = .004) and follicular phases (35% [9 of 26] vs. 6% [1 of 16], P = .061). Spearman correlation coefficients did not show any correlation of BPU with hormone levels measured at either cycle phase and suggested a weak correlation between change in BPU and changes in estrone and estradiol between phases. We observed variable effects of menstrual cycle on BPU among our cohort of premenopausal women; however, when high BPU was observed, it was most frequently seen during the luteal phase compared to follicular phase and in women with dense breasts compared to nondense breasts.

The effect of menstrual cycle phase on exercise capacity measured by treadmill exercise test

The effect of menstrual cycle phase on exercise capacity measured by treadmill exercise test

The effect of menstrual cycle phase on exercise capacity measured by treadmill exercise test

The aim of this study was to explore the impact of the menstrual phases on exercise capacity parameters measured by a treadmill exercise test in sedentary premenaupausal women. Exercise capacity expressed in terms of metabolic equivalents (MET) and exercise duration was measured by performing treadmill exercise tests in 30 women (mean age: 29 ± 5.8 years) with regular menstrual cycles at two points during their menstrual cycles: the late-follicular (LF) phase and the mid-luteal (ML) phase. The exercise duration was significantly higher (P < 0.05), and the exercise capacity (in MET) tended to be higher (P = 0.075) in the ML phase than in the LF phase. These results suggested that the menstrual phases in sedentary women can have an influence on exercise capacity. These changes may be attributed to the relative changes in the female steroid hormones between the LF and the ML phases.

Effect of menstrual cycle on thermal perception and autonomic thermoregulatory responses during mild cold exposure.

We investigated the effects of menstrual cycle phase on thermal sensation, thermal pleasantness, and autonomic thermoregulatory responses during mild cold exposure. Eight healthy young women participated. Experiments were conducted in the follicular and luteal phases: 120 min exposure at 23.5 °C after 40-min at a baseline temperature of 29 °C. Body core temperature was higher (P = 0.01) in the luteal phase than in the follicular phase. Thermal sensation of the whole body (P = 0.59), hands (P = 0.46), and toes (P = 0.94), and thermal pleasantness of the whole body (P = 0.79) were no different between phases. In both phases, mean skin temperature decreased (P = 0.00) in the same manner without any change in metabolic rate (P = 0.90). These results suggest the change of body core temperature in the menstrual cycle phases has no effect on thermal perception of cold or on autonomic cold-defense response.

Menstrual cycle phase effects in the gender dimorphic stress cue reactivity of smokers.

We previously reported that female smokers evidence greater subjective craving and stress/emotional reactivity to personalized stress cues than males. The present study employed the same dataset to assess whether females in the follicular versus luteal phase of the menstrual cycle accounted for the gender differences. Two objective criteria, onset of menses and luteinizing hormone surge (evaluated via home testing kits), were used to determine whether female smokers were in either the follicular (n = 22) or the luteal (n = 15) phase of their menstrual cycle, respectively. The females and a sample of male smokers (n = 53) were then administered a laboratory-based cue reactivity paradigm that involved assessment of craving, stress, and emotional reactivity in response to counterbalanced presentations of both a personalized stress script and neutral/relaxed script. While there were no significant differences between females in the follicular versus luteal phase on any outcome measure, females in the luteal menstrual phase reported greater craving than males whereas females in the follicular phase reported greater stress and arousal than males and perceived the stress cues as more emotionally aversive than males. This preliminary investigation suggests that gender differences in craving versus affective responding to stress cues may, in part, be explained variation by menstrual cycle phase. Study limitations and implications of the findings for future research and treatment are briefly discussed.

Menstrual Phase as Predictor of Outcome After Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Women

To determine whether menstrual cycle phase in women at the time of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) predicts 1-month outcomes. Six emergency departments; 5 in Upstate New York, and 1 in Pennsylvania. One hundred forty-four female participants (age, 16-60) who presented to participating emergency departments within 4 hours of mTBI. Nested cohort study with neurologic and quality-of-life outcome assessment, 1 month after enrollment. Female subjects aged 16 to 60 enrolled in the parent cohort study, with 1-month neurological determination data available, were classified into menstrual cycle groups by serum progesterone concentration and self-reported contraceptive use. Rivermead Post Concussion Questionnaire and EuroQoL/EQ5D. Women injured during the luteal phase of their menstrual cycle, when progesterone concentration is high, had significantly lower EuroQoL General Health Ratings and Index Scores than women injured during the follicular phase of their cycle or women taking oral contraceptives. Multivariate analysis confirmed a significant independent effect of menstrual cycle phase on EuroQoL Index Score and the Rivermead Post Concussion Questionnaire Somatic Subscore. Menstrual cycle phase and progesterone concentration at the time of mTBI affect 1-month quality-of-life and neurologic outcomes. This association has important implications for treatment and prognosis after mTBI.