Effects Of Korean Red Ginseng Research Articles

Immune-modulating Effect of Korean Red Ginseng by Balancing the Ratio of Peripheral T Lymphocytes in Bile Duct or Pancreatic Cancer Patients With Adjuvant Chemotherapy.

We aimed to clarify the clinical effect of Korean Red ginseng administered with adjuvant chemotherapy on the immune function of patients with bile duct or pancreatic cancer. This was a prospective, randomized controlled trial conducted at a single tertiary center. Twenty-six consecutive patients who underwent curative resection for bile duct or pancreatic cancer followed by 5-fluorouracil/leucovorin or gemcitabine chemotherapy were included. They were randomized 1:1 to the ginseng and control groups. Immune and inflammatory markers were assayed in peripheral blood samples during and after chemotherapy. Intergroup differences in immune-related parameters before and during chemotherapy were not significant. After chemotherapy, the percentage of CD4+ T lymphocytes was significantly higher in the ginseng group than in the control group (42.01% vs. 33.69%, p=0.048). The ratio of CD4+/CD8+ T lymphocytes was also higher in the ginseng group (2.03 vs. 1.28, p=0.027). Neutropenia and liver dysfunction prevalence did not differ between the groups. The ginseng group, which received Korean Red ginseng daily during adjuvant chemotherapy, showed higher levels of CD4+ T lymphocytes and CD4+/CD8+ T lymphocyte ratio after chemotherapy.

Effects Of Korean Red Ginseng On The Pharmacokinetics And Pharmacodynamics Of Metformin In Healthy Subjects

Characterizing potential interactions between red ginseng, an herb with desirable health effects, and metformin, a commonly used drug for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus, is of high clinical importance. In this study, we evaluate the effects of Korean red ginseng on the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of metformin in healthy subjects. The study was conducted in an open-label, two-period and single-sequence design. A total of 11 subjects received multiple doses of metformin in the first study period followed by multiple doses of metformin and red ginseng in the second study period. The Geometric Mean Ratio (GMR) (90% Confidence Interval (CI)) between the groups for area under the plasma drug concentration-time curve within a dosing interval (tau) at steady state (AUCtau,ss) of metformin was out of the range of bioequivalence, indicating that the systemic exposure of metformin when combined with red ginseng was reduced compared with administration of metformin alone. However, the pharmacodynamic analysis showed that the GMR (90% CI) between the groups for area under the blood glucose values–time curve from time zero to the time of the last measurable value (AUClast) and maximum blood glucose value (Gmax) were within the range of bioequivalence. We concluded that the observed reduction in the systemic exposure of metformin when administered with red ginseng is clinically insignificant. This study demonstrated that Korean red ginseng did not have clinically significant pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic herb–drug interactions with metformin in healthy subjects.

Effects of Korean red ginseng on human gray matter volume and cognitive function: A voxel-based morphometry study.

We aimed to investigate the effects of Korean red ginseng (KRG) supplementation on gray matter volume of the human brain which could be related to cognitive enhancing effects of KRG. In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 51 healthy individuals were assigned to receive either KRG (1000 mg/day, n = 26) or placebo (n = 25) for 8 weeks. Gray matter volume of the whole brain was measured using voxel-based morphometry based on high-resolution T1-weighted magnetic resonance images acquired at baseline and week 8. The standardized composite cognitive scores of executive function, attention, and memory were also evaluated at baseline and week 8. Changes in gray matter volume as well as the composite cognitive scores were compared between the KRG and placebo groups. Following 8 weeks of KRG supplementation, the gray matter volume of the left parahippocampal gyrus increased significantly in the KRG group, relative to the placebo group (p for interaction < 0.001). The KRG group also showed greater magnitude of enhancement in the composite cognitive scores relative to the placebo group (p for interaction = 0.03). Gray matter volume increase in the parahippocampus may be a key neural change as induced by KRG supplementation, which could be associated with cognitive enhancement.

Effects of Korean Red Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) on Menopausal Symptoms in Premenopausal Women After Gynecologic Cancer Surgery: A Double-Blind, Randomized Controlled Trial.

Objectives: Korean red ginseng (KRG) has been widely used as an alternative medicine to relieve menopausal symptoms. However, there is still a lack of clinical studies showing the effects of KRG on menopausal symptoms after gynecologic cancer surgery. Therefore, the authors investigated the effects of KRG on surgical menopause symptoms in premenopausal women with gynecologic cancer. Design: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted. Settings/Location: The study was performed at Severance Hospital at the Yonsei University College of Medicine in Seoul, Korea. Subjects: Fifty-five premenopausal women diagnosed with gynecologic cancer were enrolled in the study. Interventions: Patients were randomly assigned to a KRG (n = 29) or a placebo control group (n = 26). Subjects were administered either KRG (a total of 3 g per day) or placebo supplements for 12 weeks. Outcome measures: Patients' physical measurements (height, weight, and blood pressure) and blood samples (lipid profiles, hormone profiles, biochemical profiles, and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio) at baseline and at 12 weeks were compared. Changes in menopausal symptoms based on the Menopause Rating Scale (MRS) were also compared between these two time points and two groups. Results: After 12 weeks, the MRS score was significantly reduced in each group (p = 0.001 and p = 0.001, respectively), but there were no significant differences between the two groups (p = 0.661). No adverse events were observed in either group. After comparing 11 MRS symptoms between the two groups, the KRG group seemed to be superior to the placebo group on the subscale of sexual complaints (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Through the study, KRG did not show absolute relief of surgical menopause symptoms in premenopausal women after gynecologic cancer surgery. However, the study did demonstrate that KRG may be effective in reducing sexual complaints. Further studies are required to evaluate the long-term effects of KRG in a larger patient population.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng on metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome (MS) refers to a clustering of at least three of the following medical conditions: high blood pressure, abdominal obesity, hyperglycemia, low high-density lipoprotein level, and high serum triglycerides. MS is related to a wide range of diseases which includes obesity, diabetes, insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, dyslipidemia, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. There remains an ongoing need for improved treatment strategies for MS. The most important risk factors are dietary pattern, genetics, old age, lack of exercise, disrupted biology, medication usage, and excessive alcohol consumption, but pathophysiology of MS has not been completely identified. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) refers to steamed/dried ginseng, traditionally associated with beneficial effects such as anti-inflammation, anti-fatigue, anti-obesity, anti-oxidant, and anti-cancer effects. KRG has been often used in traditional medicine to treat multiple metabolic conditions. This paper summarizes the effects of KRG in MS and related diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance, diabetes, dyslipidemia, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease based on experimental research and clinical studies.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng on Cholesterol Metabolites in Postmenopausal Women with Hypercholesterolemia: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial.

Korean red ginseng (KRG) is known to exert beneficial effects on cardiovascular health. Meanwhile, reduced estrogen at menopause has been shown to have various adverse impacts on cardiovascular risk factors, including blood lipids. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the effect of KRG on cholesterol metabolites, which are surrogate markers of cholesterol absorption and biosynthesis, in postmenopausal women with hypercholesterolemia. The present study is an exploratory study which used data from a 4-week, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical pilot study in 68 postmenopausal women with hypercholesterolemia. Patients received KRG (2 g) or placebo (2 g) once daily. The primary endpoints were changes in the levels of nine sterols. Serum sterols were analyzed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)/MS analysis. Among the sterols, reduction in cholesterol level were significantly larger in the KRG group than in the placebo group (the changes: −148.3 ± 261.1 nmol/mL in the ginseng group vs. −23.0 ± 220.5 nmol/mL in the placebo group, p = 0.039). Additionally, changes in 7-hydroxycholesterol (7-OHC) were significantly larger in the KRG group than in the placebo group (the changes: −0.05 ± 0.09 nmol/mL in the ginseng group vs. −0.002 ± 0.1 nmol/mL in the placebo group, p = 0.047). Oxysterols, cholesterol derivates, have been known to play a role in chronic inflammation diseases such as cardiovascular diseases. KRG improves sterol metabolism by decreasing cholesterol and 7-OHC levels in postmenopausal women with hypercholesterolemia.

Anti-aging effects of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) in differentiated embryo chondrocyte (DEC) knockout mice

BackgroundThe circadian rhythm is the internal clock that controls sleep-wake cycles, metabolism, cognition, and several processes in the body, and its disruption has been associated with aging. The differentiated embryo chondrocyte (Dec) gene is related to circadian rhythm. To our knowledge, there are no reports of the relationship between dec gene expression and KRG effect. Therefore, we treated Dec gene knockout (KO) aging mice with KRG to study anti-aging related effects and possible mechanisms. MethodsWe evaluated KRG and expression of Dec genes in an ototoxicity model. Dec genes expression in livers of aging mice was further analyzed. Then, we assessed the effects of DEC KO on hearing function in mice by ABR. Finally, we performed DNA microarray to identify KRG-related gene expression changes in mouse liver and assessed the results using KEGG analysis. ResultsKRG decreased the expression of Dec genes in ototoxicity model, which may contribute to its anti-aging efficacy. Moreover, KRG suppressed Dec genes expression in liver of wild type indicating inhibition of senescence. ABR test indicated that KRG improved auditory function in aging mouse, demonstrating KRG efficacy on aging related diseases. ConclusionFinally, in KEGG analysis of 238 genes that were activated and 158 that were inhibited by KRG in DEC KO mice, activated genes were involved in proliferation signaling, mineral absorption, and PPAR signaling whereas the inhibited genes were involved in arachidonic acid metabolism and peroxisomes. Our data indicate that inhibition of senescence-related Dec genes may explain the anti-aging efficacy of KRG.

Immuno-enhancement effects of Korean Red Ginseng in healthy adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

BackgroundMost clinical studies of immune responses activated by Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) have been conducted exclusively in patients. However, there is still a lack of clinical research on immune-boosting benefits of KRG for healthy persons. This study aims to confirm how KRG boosts the immune system of healthy subjects. MethodsA total of 100 healthy adult subjects were randomly divided into two groups that took either a 2 g KRG tablet or a placebo per day for 8 weeks. The primary efficacy evaluation variables included changes in T cells, B cells, and white blood cells (WBCs) before and after eight weeks of KRG ingestion. Cytokines (TNF-α, INF-γ, IL-2 and IL-4), WBC differential count, and incidence of colds were measured in the secondary efficacy evaluation variables. Safety evaluation variables were used to identify changes in laboratory test results that incorporated adverse reactions, vital signs, hematological tests, blood chemistry tests, and urinalysis. ResultsCompared to the placebo group, the KRG intake group showed a significant increase in the number of T cells (CD3) and its subtypes (CD4 and CD8), B cells, and the WBC count before and after eight weeks of the intake. There were no clinically significant adverse reactions or other notable results in the safety evaluation factors observed. ConclusionThis study has proven through its eight-week intake test and subsequent analysis that KRG boosts the immune system through an increase in T cells, B cells, and WBCs, and that it is safe according to the study's safety evaluation.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng on Early Vestibular Function Restoration after Unilateral Labyrinthectomy

Objectives: Vertigo is a common condition. Definitive treatment is to induce vestibular compensation. Currently, no medications have been discovered that enhance vestibular functional restoration. The current study was conducted to evaluate the ability of ordinary Korean red ginseng (KRG) to induce vestibular compensation. Methods: Twelve Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into two groups. Five rats (KRG group) were fed KRG extract (100 mg/kg) for 2 weeks before undergoing unilateral labyrinthectomy (ULx). The remaining seven rats (control group) were untreated before ULx. After surgery, all animals were housed in the same environment without being fed additional extract. To evaluate vestibular function, gain of the horizontal nystagmus to 0.2 Hz with a peak velocity of 100°/second sinusoidal rotation was compared and analyzed before ULx as well as 3 and 7 days after surgery. Results: Before the operation, gain of the control and KRG group were 0.81±0.05 and 0.88±0.08, respectively, with 0.2-Hz stimulation. This value decreased to 0.43±0.08 and 0.53±0.08, respectively on 3 days after operation (p=0.047), and it was 0.40±0.06 and 0.68±0.11, respectively on 7 days after surgery. The difference of gain between the two groups was statistically significant at each 3 and 7 days (p＜0.05). By confirming c-Fos protein expression in medial vestibular nuclei, the functional effect of KRG causing vestibular modulation was confirmed. Conclusions: Rats treated with KRG showed more rapid and complete recovery after acute vestibular loss compared to untreated animals. Therefore, KRG could be one of candidate for the useful medication of vestibular diseases. Keywords: Compensation; Ginseng; Vertigo; Vestibule 중심 단어: 보상, 홍삼, 어지럼, ì „ì •

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng through comparative analysis of cardiac gene expression in db/db mice

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is an herbal oriental medicine known to alleviate cardiovascular dysfunction. To analysis the expression of diabetic cardiac complication-associated genes in db/db mice, we studied the cardiac gene expression following KRG treatment. In result, a total of 585 genes were found to be changed in db/db mice. Among the changed expression, 245 genes were found to 2-fold upregulated, and 340 genes were 2-fold downregulated. In addition, the changed gene expressions were ameliorated by KRG. In conclusion, KRG may be possible to normalize cardiac gene expressions in db/db mice.

The effect of Korean Red Ginseng on sarcopenia biomarkers in type 2 diabetes patients

BackgroundThe elderly population is growing rapidly worldwide and sarcopenia, which is considered as a new geriatric syndrome has become an important issue. In particular, diabetes is known to be an important risk factor for sarcopenia. In this study, we investigated the effects of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on biomarkers of sarcopenia in middle and old age diabetes patients. Patients and methodsThis study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Participants were randomly allocated to either the placebo or KRG group and took corresponding tablets for 24 weeks. The primary outcomes were changes in sarcopenia biomarkers at week 24. Secondary outcomes were changes in inflammatory and antioxidant markers and lean body mass at week 24. ResultsFifty-nine patients completed the study. Follistatin and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) were significantly improved in KRG group. In the subgroup analysis, female postmenopausal patients over the age of 55 showed a significant improvement in serum SHBG, follistatin, and growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) and an attenuated reduction in Troponin T (TNT) after the administration of KRG. ConclusionTwenty-four week administration of KRG in diabetes patients resulted in a significant improvement in follistatin and SHBG levels, especially in old postmenopausal women. A further, larger population study with a longer follow-up period is warranted to verify and understand the effects of KRG on sarcopenia.

Preventive effects of Korean red ginseng on experimentally induced colitis and colon carcinogenesis

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) exerts chemopreventive effects on experimentally induced carcinogenesis through multiple mechanisms. In this study, we investigated effects of KRG on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis and azoxymethane (AOM) plus DSS-induced colon carcinogenesis in mice. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed diet containing 1% KRG or a standard diet throughout the experiment. The mouse colitis was induced by administration of 3% DSS in drinking water for 1 week. DSS caused body weight loss, diarrhea, rectal bleeding and colon length shortening, and all these symptoms were ameliorated by KRG treatment. KRG inhibited DSS-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) by suppressing activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activation of transcription 3 (STAT3). In another experiment, colon carcinogenesis was initiated by single intraperitoneal injection of AOM (10 mg/kg) and promoted by 2% DSS in drinking water. KRG administration relieved the symptoms of colitis and reduced the incidence, the multiplicity and the size of colon tumor. The up-regulation of COX-2, iNOS, c-Myc and Cyclin D1 by AOM plus DSS was attenuated in KRG fed mice which was associated with suppression of NF-κB and STAT3 activation. These results suggest that KRG is a potential candidate for chemoprevention of inflammation-associated cancer in the colon.

Korean Red Ginseng Plays An Anti-Aging Role by Modulating Expression of Aging-Related Genes and Immune Cell Subsets.

Despite previous reports of anti-aging effects of Korean red ginseng (KRG), the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Therefore, this study investigated possible mechanisms of KRG-mediated anti-aging effects in aged mice. KRG significantly inhibited thymic involution in old mice. Interestingly, KRG only increased protein expression, but not mRNA expression, of aging-related genes Lin28a, GDF-11, Sirt1, IL-2, and IL-17 in the thymocytes of old mice. KRG also modulated the population of some types of immune cells in old mice. KRG increased the population of regulatory T cells and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)-expressing natural killer (NK) cells in the spleen of old mice, but serum levels of regulatory T cell-specific cytokines IL-10 and TGF-β were unaffected. Finally, KRG recovered mRNA expression of Lin28a, GDF-11, and Sirt1 artificially decreased by concanavalin A (Con A) in both thymocytes and splenocytes of old mice without cytotoxicity. These results suggest that KRG exerts anti-aging effects by preventing thymic involution, as well as modulating the expression of aging-related genes and immune cell subsets.

Korean red ginseng attenuates hyperglycemia-induced renal inflammation and fibrosis via accelerated autophagy and protects against diabetic kidney disease

Ethnopharmacological relevancePanax ginseng C.A. Mey. (Korean ginseng) has been widely used in traditional medicine to treat diabetes mellitus for thousands of years. It also plays a key role in health maintenance owing to its anti-oxidant and anti-fatigue properties, and is quite popular as a dietary supplement. Aim of the studyThis study was designed to offer a complementary and alternative medicine to manage the diabetic kidney disease (DKD), which causes long-term damage to the renal structure. We also investigated the regulation of the autophagy mechanism, which is the underlying the pathogenesis of DKD. Materials and methodsThe effect of Korean red ginseng (KRG) on DKD was evaluated using human kidney proximal tubular cells and streptozotocin (STZ)-treated Sprague-Dawley rat models. In vitro experiments were conducted to evaluate the proteins related to fibrosis and autophagy. This was followed by in vivo experiments involving rats treated with single intraperitoneal administration of STZ (60 mg/kg) and then with KRG solution orally for 4 weeks. Proteins related to renal injury, fibrosis, and autophagy were determined by immunoblotting. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), Sirius red, and immunostaining were processed for histological studies. ResultsKRG diminished the levels of metabolic measurements and blood parameters. Western blotting showed a decreased expression of proteins, such as TGF-β1, KIM1, and AGE, which are responsible for renal inflammation, injury, and fibrosis. Histological studies also supported these results and revealed that the KRG-treated groups recovered from renal injury and fibrosis. Furthermore, the autophagy marker, LC3, was upregulated, whereas p62 was downregulated. The levels of proteins related to the autophagy mechanism, such as ATG7, increased, while mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) decreased with the KRG treatment and exhibited accelerated autophagy compared to the STZ alone group. ConclusionsKRG can suppress renal inflammation, injury, and fibrosis by blocking TGF-β1 activation and can induce cellular autophagy. Therefore, this study strongly suggests that KRG exhibits a renoprotective effect against the STZ-induced DKD.

The Effect of Korean Red Ginseng on Symptoms and Inflammation in Patients With Allergic Rhinitis

Korean red ginseng (KRG) has been traditionally used in Korea for health improvement. However, the clinical effect of KRG intake on the symptoms in patients with allergic rhinitis remains unknown. Our study was performed to identify the clinical effects of KRG on patients with allergic rhinitis and to examine the effect of KRG on allergic inflammatory reaction. We evaluated 60 patients with allergic rhinitis. All the patients were treated for 4 weeks. The patients were divided into 3 groups, according to the medication. Twenty patients were treated with KRG, 20 patients with the placebo, and 20 patients with the antihistamine. The patients recorded their symptoms in a daily symptom diary card. The patients checked the peak nasal inspiratory flow rate 2 times a day. Total serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) and serum-specific IgE were measured by ImmunoCap method before and after 4-week medication. The Th2 cytokines interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, and IL-10 were checked in the serum before and after the 4-week treatment. The eosinophil counts in the nasal smears were checked. Korean red ginseng group has shown the significant improvement in rhinorrhea, nasal itching, and eye itching. Both the antihistamine and KRG groups showed a significant decrease in total IgE level at the end of treatment. The serum IL-4 level and eosinophil counts in the nasal smears were significantly decreased both in the antihistamine and in the KRG groups. In conclusion, KRG might be a useful treatment modality for patients with allergic rhinitis.

Comparative transcriptome analysis of the protective effects of Korean Red Ginseng against the influence of bisphenol A in the liver and uterus of ovariectomized mice

BackgroundBisphenol A (BPA), known as an endocrine disruptor, is widely used in the world. BPA is reported to cause inflammation-related diseases. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has been used safely in human for a long time for the treatment of diverse diseases. KRG has been reported of its mitigating effect on menopausal symptoms and suppress adipose inflammation. Here, we investigate the protective effect of orally administered KRG on the impacts of BPA in the liver and uterus of menopausal mice model. MethodsThe transcriptome analysis for the effects of BPA on mice liver was evaluated by Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database–based data (GSE26728). In vivo assay to evaluate the protective effect of KRG on BPA impact in ovariectomized (OVX) mice were designed and analyzed by RNA sequencing. ResultsWe first demonstrated that BPA induced 12 kinds of gene set in the liver of normal mice. The administration of BPA and KRG did not change body, liver, and uterine weight in OVX mice. KRG downregulated BPA-induced inflammatory response and chemotaxis-related gene expression. Several gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA)–derived inflammatory response genes increased by BPA were inhibited by KRG in OVX mice. ConclusionOur data suggest that BPA has commonly influenced inflammatory response effects on both normal and OVX mice. KRG protects against BPA impact of inflammatory response and chemotaxis in OVX mouse models. Our comparative analysis will provide new insight into the efficacy of KRG on endocrine disrupting chemicals and OVX mouse.

The Effect of Korean Red Ginseng on Bisphenol A-Induced Fatty Acid Composition and Lipid Metabolism-Related Gene Expression Changes.

Bisphenol A (BPA), which is known to be an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), is associated not only with estrogen activity and reproductive toxicity but also with a variety of metabolic disorders. BPA affects glucose tolerance, cholesterol biosynthesis, and fatty acid synthesis. Ginseng is a traditional medicinal plant that has been widely used in East Asia for more than 2000 years, and a number of health effects have been reported. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has also been shown to have effects on lipid metabolism and body weight reduction in vivo in obese mice. In this study, we administered BPA and KRG to ovariectomized (OVX) ICR mice. BPA (800 mg/kg/day) and KRG (1.2 g/kg/day) were orally administered to OVX mice for 3 days. KRG inhibited the increase in total fatty acid level by BPA as determined by lipid profiling in the liver of OVX mice. In addition, transcriptome analysis showed that KRG inhibited BPA-induced changes in lipid metabolic process-related genes. Our findings suggest that KRG can regulate BPA-induced changes in lipid metabolism.

Korean Red Ginseng reduces chronic social defeat stress-induced mood disorders via N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor modulation in mice

BackgroundA chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) model has been proposed as relevant to stress-induced behavioral change in humans. In this study, we examined the effect of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on CSDS-induced mood disorders and protein expression in an animal model. MethodsTo evaluate the effect of KRG on social defeat stress, test mice were exposed in the resident aggressor's home cage compartment for 14 days beginning 1 h after KRG treatment (10, 20, and 40 mg/kg, per oral (p.o.)). After the exposure, behavioral tests to measure anxiety, social interaction, and depression-like behavior were performed. To investigate the underlying mechanism, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor expression levels in CSDS-induced mice were evaluated using Western blot analysis. ResultsCSDS induced anxiety-like behaviors by decreasing central activity in the open-field test and open-arm approach in the elevated plus maze test and led to social avoidance behavior in the social interaction test. CSDS mice showed upregulated NR1, NR2A, and NR2B expression in the hippocampus. KRG 20 and 40 mg/kg ameliorated anxiety-like activities and KRG 20 mg/kg alleviated social avoidance by decreasing time in the corner zone. KRG treatment recovered CSDS-induced NR1, NR2A, and NR2B protein levels in the hippocampus. ConclusionThese results indicate that KRG has a therapeutic effect on CSDS-induced mood disorder by alleviating N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor overexpression in the hippocampus.

Korean Red Ginseng alleviates dehydroepiandrosterone-induced polycystic ovarian syndrome in rats via its antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities

BackgroundBeneficial effects of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) remains unclear. MethodsWe examined whether pretreatment (daily from 2 hours before PCOS induction) with KRG extract in water (KRGE; 75 and 150 mg/kg/day, p.o.) could exert a favorable effect in a dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)-induced PCOS rat model. ResultsPretreatment with KRGE significantly inhibited the elevation of body and ovary weights, the increase in number and size of ovarian cysts, and the elevation of serum testosterone and estradiol levels induced by DHEA. Pretreatment with KRGE also inhibited macrophage infiltration and enhanced mRNA expression levels of chemokines [interleukin (IL)-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1), proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6), and inducible nitric oxide synthase in ovaries induced by DHEA. It also prevented the reduction in mRNA expression of growth factors (epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor-beta (EGF, TGF-β)) related to inhibition of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell pathway and stimulation of the nuclear factor erythroid–derived 2-related factor 2 pathway. Interestingly, KRGE or representative ginsenosides (Rb1, Rg1, and Rg3(s)) inhibited the activity of inflammatory enzymes cyclooxygenase-2 and iNOS, cytosolic p-IkB, and nuclear p–nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 cells, whereas they increased nuclear factor erythroid–derived 2-related factor 2 nuclear translocation. ConclusionThese results provide that KRGE could prevent DHEA-induced PCOS via antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities. Thus, KRGE may be used in preventive and therapeutic strategies for PCOS-like symptoms.

The Protective Effect of Korean Red Ginseng Against Rotenone-Induced Parkinson's Disease in Rat Model: Modulation of Nuclear Factor-κβ and Caspase-3.

Korean red ginseng was reported to have many biological effects like the antioxidant and the anti-inflammatory activities. Oxidative stress and neuro-inflammation play major roles in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). The current study aimed to investigate the protective effects of ginseng on rotenone-induced PD in rats. Rats were randomly allocated into 4 groups: normal rats, rotenone control, ginseng+rotenone and ginseng only treated rats. The severity of PD was evaluated through locomotor activity perceived in the open field test, histological examination and immunohistochemical detection of amyloid-β in brain tissues, in addition to the biochemical assessment of tyrosine hydroxylase activity in brain tissues. Moreover, the following parameters were investigated for studying the possible mechanisms of ginseng neuroprotective effect: nuclear factor-κβ (NF-κβ), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), caspase- 3, lipid peroxides and reduced glutathione (GSH). Ginseng exhibited potent neuroprotective effect that was reflected upon the histopathological examination, marked improvement in the locomotor activity and through its ability to suppress the amyloid- β deposition in the cortex and striatum along with significant increase in the tyrosine hydroxylase activity. Ginseng successfully inhibited the NF-κβ inflammatory pathway in brain tissues beside the inhibition of other oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, it exhibited antiapoptotic effect via the inhibition of caspase-3 expression. Ginseng could be a promising treatment in PD. It can suppress dopaminergic neuron degeneration through variable mechanisms mainly via inhibition of NF-κβ pathway in addition to inhibition of oxidative stress and apoptosis.