Habituation Effects Research Articles

Effects of interstimulus interval and significance on electrodermal and central measures of the phasic orienting reflex (OR) in a dishabituation task

Although the P300 event-related potential (ERP) is the most likely central measure of Sokolov’s Orienting Reflex (OR), there are few systematic comparisons with the skin conductance response (SCR), the “gold standard” electrodermal OR measure. We examine habituation, stimulus significance, and inter-stimulus interval (ISI) effects in SCRs and components of the P300 from single-trial ERPs in an auditory dishabituation paradigm. Single trial ERP components were separated by temporal principal components analysis, and five components of the P300 were examined as potential phasic OR measures: P3a, P3b, Novelty P3, and two Slow Waves (SW1, SW2). Across the factors of ISI and significance, SCRs showed decrement over trials, recovery at a deviant, and dishabituation at the subsequent standard. This general pattern was not present in any of the components of the P300. SCRs were also larger to significant stimuli and at the long ISI; effects differed between P300 components. The electrodermal SCR showed the complete profile over trials expected of the phasic OR, and was enhanced by stimulus significance, confirming it as the model measure of Sokolov’s phasic OR. Components of the P300 failed to match this profile, but instead appear to reflect different aspects of the stimulus processing involved in OR elicitation.

Truthful yet misleading: Elementary second-order deception in school-age children and its sociocognitive correlates

In highly competitive contexts, deceptive intentions might be transparent, so conveying only false information to the opponent can become a predictable strategy. In such situations, alternating between truths and lies (second-order lying behavior) represents a less foreseeable option. The current study investigated the development of 8- to 10-year-old children’s elementary second-order deception in relation to their attribution of ignorance (first- and second-order ignorance) and executive functions (inhibitory control, shifting ability, and verbal working memory). An adapted version of the hide-and-seek paradigm was used to assess children’s second-order lie-telling, in which children were asked to hide a coin in either of their hands. Unlike the standard paradigm, the opponent did not consistently look for the coin in the location indicated by the children, so children needed to switch between telling simple lies and truths (elementary second-order lies about the coin location) to successfully deceive the recipient. The results showed that older children were less likely to tell elementary second-order lies. However, across the sample, when children decided to lie, this ability was positively related to their second-order ignorance attribution and their verbal working memory. Moreover, we obtained preliminary evidence for the presence of a habituation effect in second-order lying, with children being more accurate and having less variability in their truthful-to-deceive responses (this being the more frequently elicited response) than when telling lies to deceive. Our findings could have implications for understanding the mechanisms underlying children’s ability to alternate between truths and lies to deceive.

Temperature and humidity index (THI) affects salivary cortisol (HC) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) concentrations in growing bulls following stress generated by performance test procedures.

The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis response to a challenge was proposed for genetic selection of robust and resilient animals. As ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) test and hormone measurements in blood may result impractical, it may be useful to measure salivary hormones in response to natural stressors, after an accurate biological validation, to control factors that could contribute to the response. We evaluated whether animal handling during performance test affects salivary HC and DHEA secretion and could be used for selection. We tested the effects of habituation to repeated handling and THI as putative bias. Bull calves (N = 273) undergoing performance test were sampled at 8-9 and 11-13 months (N = 101), 8-9 months (N = 131), or 11-13 months (N = 41). On each test day (D0), calves were isolated, conducted to a squeeze chute and immobilized for 6 min. Saliva samples were collected in the morning after feed administration (T0), and after 6 min immobilization in the squeeze chute (T1) for HC and DHEA measurement. Environmental temperature and relative humidity were recorded every hour from 1:00 h to 24:00 h during the 6 days before the performance test and on D0. Salivary HC and DHEA concentrations were higher in T1 (p < 0.01), although a clear individual positive response to handling could be observed in less than 10% of subjects. The mixed model revealed: (i) HC and HC/DHEA were higher in Young bulls (p < 0.05). (ii) The time of T0 sample collection significantly affected DHEA (p < 0.01) and HC/DHEA (p < 0.05). (iii) THI affected both steroids (p < 0.001) but not HC/DHEA. Spearman correlations suggested that THI weakly affected salivary HC at T0 only (ρ = 0.150, p < 0.01), while moderate statistically significant correlations were found between DHEA and THI at T0 (ρ = 0.316, p < 0.001), and T1 (ρ = 0.353, p < 0.001). Salivary HC and DHEA in response to handling procedures might identify subpopulations of subjects with sensitive HPA axis. Habituation to repeated handling played a role, as the hormone response was lower in older animals. Chronic exposure to high THI had a minor effect on salivary HC visible at T0. A more intense THI effect was observed on salivary DHEA concentrations at both T0 and T1, which should be worth of further investigations.

The Effect Of Mingle Night Habituation On Improving Students’ Speaking Skills At Bestone Education English Course

The objective of this study is to find out how the effect of habituation of Mingle Night program in improving students' English speaking ability at BestOne Education English Course. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative research design. The data collection methods used were observation, interview, and documentation. The participants in this study amounted to 15 students at the BesOne Education course. The results of this study show that the impact of the Mingle Night program can increase students' vocabulary and improve students' English speaking skills. In addition, the Mingle Night program can also increase self-confidence and build mental in speaking in front of many people. This Mingle Night program is also different from other programs that students have encountered because in Mingle Night students can be free in speaking and having opinions without fear of the wrong word structure. In conclusion, the Mingle Night program at BestOne Education is considered effective in improving students' speaking skills. In addition, tutor assistance and support also greatly affect the effectiveness of this Mingle Night program.

Speaking in front of cartoon avatars: A behavioral and psychophysiological study on how audience design impacts on public speaking anxiety in virtual environments

Public speaking anxiety is defined as a strong difficulty in speaking in front of an audience and has been shown to impair work performance and social relationships. Virtual Reality (VR) offers an efficient tool for modulating public speaking anxiety through a wide range of customizations concerning environmental settings. However, scientific research needs to understand better what features of the simulated environment are more important to increase or reduce participants’ perceived discomfort. The present study investigates the role of visual (human vs cartoon characters) and acoustic (human vs robotic voice) audience features on perceived anxiety, sense of presence, and perceived realism in an interactive VR public speaking scenario. 42 participants (mean age = 24 y.o; Females = 30) performed four public speaking sessions, characterized by different levels (high vs. low) of graphic and acoustic audience design. Both explicit (questionnaires) and implicit physiological measures (Electrodermal activity-EDA) collected during audience interaction were used to assess the participants’ experiences.The results showed that the features of the simulated audience played a crucial role in perceived anxiety during a virtual public speaking. Specifically, the more realistic level of graphic and acoustic stimuli resulted in higher levels of self-reported anxiety as compared to the lower realism level. However, the experienced realism and the sense of presence seem more affected by the graphical than acoustic features of the virtual environment. By contrast, the acoustic features impact on the interaction realism with the virtual audience. Interestingly, the robotic voice (lower acoustic realism) increased electrodermal response during the interaction with the audience, interpreted as a break in the sense of presence. A positive correlation between anxiety, sense of presence, and experienced realism was found. As well, perceived anxiety is correlated with electrodermal activity during the performance. Nevertheless, physiological activity is more affected by the first experience than the realism features, suggesting the presence of a habituation effect across the repeated sessions. Taken together, the results of our study showed that multisensory features (graphical and acoustic) of the virtual environment play a fundamental role in creating realistic public speaking experiences and might be used within gamification strategies for soft skill training (e.g., for improving public speaking anxiety).

Exploring the effects of habituation and scent in first-person 360-degree videos on consumption behavior

Although immersive virtual environments can influence food-related thoughts, emotions and behavior, the influence of repeated exposure to food cues in such environments has rarely been explored. This study seeks to understand if habituation, a decrease in one’s physiological and behavioral response that results from repeated simulation, can take place while repeatedly watching 360-degrees of food being consumed. The influence of scent as an olfactory cue is further explored, based on past research on embodied cognition. In Study One (n = 42), participants who viewed 30 repetitions of someone eating an M&M ate significantly fewer M&Ms than those who viewed three repetitions. Study Two (n = 114) used a 2 (behavior: eating M&M/inserting a coin) × 2 (repetitions: 3/30) between-subjects experiment to confirm that results from Study One were due to habituation of the consumption video, finding that there were only significant differences between repetitions in the M&M condition. Finally, Study Three (n = 161) comprised a 2 (repetition: 3/30) × 2 (scent: present/absent) between-subjects experiment. Participants in the 30-repetition condition and those in the scent-present condition ate significantly fewer M&Ms respectively, but no interaction effects were found. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Reduction in Radiologist Interpretation Time of Serial CT and MR Imaging Findings with Deep Learning Identification of Relevant Priors, Series and Finding Locations

Finding comparison to relevant prior studies is a requisite component of the radiology workflow. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of a deep learning tool simplifying this time-consuming task by automatically identifying and displaying the finding in relevant prior studies. The algorithm pipeline used in this retrospective study, TimeLens (TL), is based on natural language processingand descriptor-based image-matching algorithms. The dataset used for testing comprised 3872 series of 246 radiology examinations from 75 patients (189 CTs, 95 MRIs). To ensure a comprehensive testing, five finding types frequently encountered in radiology practice were included: aortic aneurysm, intracranial aneurysm, kidney lesion, meningioma, and pulmonary nodule. After a standardized training session, nine radiologists from three university hospitals performed two reading sessions on a cloud-based evaluation platform resembling a standard RIS/PACS. The task was to measure the diameter of the finding-of-interest on two or more exams (a most recent and at least one prior exam): first without use of TL, and a second session at an interval of at least 21 days with the use of TL. All user actions were logged for each round, including time needed to measure the finding at all timepoints, number of mouse clicks, and mouse distance traveled. The effect of TL was evaluated in total, per finding type, per reader, per experience (resident vs. board-certified radiologist), and per modality. Mouse movement patterns were analyzed with heatmaps. To assess the effect of habituation to the cases, a third round of readings was performed without TL. Across scenarios, TL reduced the average time needed to assess a finding at all timepoints by 40.1% (107 vs. 65seconds; p<0.001). Largest accelerations were demonstrated for assessment of pulmonary nodules (-47.0%; p<0.001). Less mouse clicks (-17.2%) were needed for finding evaluation with TL, and mouse distance traveled was reduced by 38.0%. Time needed to assess the findings increased from round 2 to round 3 (+27.6%; p<0.001). Readers were able to measure a given finding in 94.4% of cases on the series initially proposed by TL as most relevant series for comparison. The heatmaps showed consistently simplified mouse movement patterns with TL. A deep learning tool significantly reduced both the amount of user interactions with the radiology image viewer and the time needed to assess findings of interest on cross-sectional imaging with relevant prior exams.

The habituation of higher-order conscious processes: Evidence from mental arithmetic

A recurring idea in psychology is that one is conscious only of the “outputs” of mental operations, but not of the operations themselves. Often, such “entry into consciousness” occurs involuntarily. To investigate involuntary entry, some experimentalists have used the reflexive imagery task (RIT). The RIT has revealed that, under certain conditions, external stimuli (e.g., line drawings) can elicit involuntary entry of high-level cognitions. In the basic version of the task, participants are presented with visual objects and instructed not to subvocalize (i.e., say in one's head) the names of these objects. Participants cannot suppress these subvocalizations on a majority of the trials. It has been proposed that, if RIT effects resemble a reflex, then perhaps they will habituate as reflexes do. In the “habituation” variant of the RIT, the same stimulus object (e.g., CAT) is presented on ten consecutive trials (ten “instantiations”), in order to induce habituation (i.e., a weakened RIT effect). It remains unknown whether such habituation effects arise for stimulus-elicited processes that depend, not on subvocalization, but on more complex processes, such as mental arithmetic. To illuminate this issue, we conducted a conceptual replication of the “habituation” RIT that involves, on each trial, the participant trying not to add two numbers (e.g., 14 and 2). We assessed whether the habituation effects were stimulus-specific or set-specific. Understanding the boundary conditions of the RIT effect and its habituation illuminates the limits of unconscious processes and the role of conscious processing.

The morphology and effect of SMS/social media habituation on the spelling patterns of some secondary students in delta state, Nigeria

The influence of technology and the internet on modern English language is indisputable. Social media apps have become the most enduring sources of spelling innovations in English. With insights from morphology, this paper utilises a descriptive approach to investigate the effect of habituation, measured in terms of the frequency of use of chat platforms, on the spelling behaviour of one hundred and sixty senior secondary students in rural and cosmopolitan communities. Data is generated from one hundred sixty senior secondary school students with questionnaires and written compositions. The findings indicate that habitual users of SMS/social media chat platforms unconsciously transfer spelling patterns characteristic of social media messaging applications into formal written English. The data also indicate that the phenomenon mainly operates on monosyllabic words vis disyllabic and polysyllabic categories. The paper recommends less prescriptivism of the phenomenon and an understanding of the process as a phase in the evolution of the English language.

First Longitudinal Study Using Binaural Beats on Parkinson Disease

This paper describes a longitudinal study to analyze the effects of acoustic stimulation with Binaural Beats (BBs) at 14[Formula: see text]Hz (beta band) in patients with Parkinson's Disease (PD). Participants ([Formula: see text], age [Formula: see text], stage [Formula: see text] Hoehn and Yahr scale) listened to binaural stimulation for 10[Formula: see text]min a day, 3 days a week, during six months and were assessed 3 times during this period using electroencephalography (EEG), cognitive (PD-CRS), quality of life (PDQ-39) and wearing-off (WOQ-19) tests. During each assessment (basal, and after 3 and 6 months), the relative power in theta band was analyzed before, during and after the stimulation. Focusing the analysis on the motor cortex, the results obtained have confirmed the initial hypothesis for the first session, but they have shown a habituation effect which decreases its efficiency with time. Also, different reactions have been detected among individuals, with some reacting as expected from the beginning, while others would react in an opposite way at the beginning but they have shown afterwards a tendency towards the expected outcome. Anyhow, the relative power of the theta band was reduced between the first and the last session for more than half of the participants, although with very different values. Subtle changes have also been observed in some items of the PD-CRS, PDQ-39 and WOQ-19 tests.

Modeling the impact of the habituation effect on information spreading processes with repeated contacts under an SI model.

People are exposed to information from different sources whether or not such exposure is desired. Due to a limited ability to process information, only parts of the messages may be absorbed, and other parts may be ignored. Repeated stimuli lead to lower responses due to the learning process and the habituation effect. While this effect has been intensively studied, mainly in relation to visual stimulus, it is also incorporated in information spreading processes. Information spreading models often assume the possibility of repeated contact, but no habituation effect, which lowers the level of responsiveness of nodes in the network, has been implemented. Here, we study the impact of the habituation effect on information spreading with a susceptible-infected (SI) model, which is often the basis for other models. We assume that a decrease in habituation has an impact on propagation processes. Analysis of the results shows that the course of these propagation processes behave differently, significantly worsening their results. These processes are very sensitive, even to small changes in the level of habituation.

Habituation to Livestock Trailer and Its Influence on Stress Responses during Transportation in Goats

This experiment was conducted to determine the effects of habituation to livestock trailers on stress responses in goats transported for long periods. Intact male Spanish goats (12-month old; BW = 31.6 ± 0.34 kg; N = 168) were separated into two treatment (TRT) groups and maintained on two different paddocks. Concentrate supplement was fed to one group inside two livestock trailers (5.0 × 2.3 m each; habituated group, H), while the other group received the concentrate supplement, but not inside the trailers (non-habituated, NH). After 4 weeks of habituation period, goats were subjected to a 10-h transportation stress in four replicates (n = 21 goats/replicate/TRT). Blood samples were collected by a trained individual by jugular venipuncture into vacutainer tubes before loading (Preload), 20 min after loading (0 h), and at 2-h intervals thereafter (Time) for analysis of stress responses. There was a tendency for a TRT effect (p < 0.1) on tyramine and metanephrine concentrations. Phenylethylamine and 5-methoxytryptamine concentrations were significantly greater (p < 0.05) in the H group compared to the NH group. Both dopamine and 5-methoxytryptamine concentrations decreased (p < 0.05) with transportation time; however, TRT × Time interaction effects were not significant. Habituation to trailers may be beneficial in mood and energy stabilization in goats during long-distance transportation.

Vigilance and habituation: Polymorphic experience effects in internet users' privacy disclosure decisions

Internet users frequently encounter diverse data requests, and their privacy disclosure decisions have attracted massive practical and scholarly attention. Nevertheless, how the accumulation of users' disclosure-related experiences influences their future privacy disclosure decisions is still under-explored. In this paper, we theoretically derive and examine the impacts of two types of disclosure-related experiences—privacy disclosure and privacy invasion experiences. These experiences respectively represent user experiences in the participation and feedback stages of privacy disclosure events. We draw on the systematic-heuristic model of information processing and the privacy calculus model to raise the core speculation that users' disclosure-related experiences exert multiple forms of effects on their privacy disclosure decisions through multiple theoretical routes (i.e., polymorphic experience effects). To test this speculation, we conducted two online survey studies (N = 485, N = 324) and yielded three major findings: (1) users' privacy disclosure experiences can promote their information disclosure intentions through direct and mediation routes (i.e., habituation effects); (2) users' privacy invasion experiences can deter their information disclosure intentions through mediation and moderation routes, yet the latter varied across the investigated contexts (i.e., vigilance effects); (3) the moderating role of privacy disclosure experiences and the directly influencing role of privacy invasion experiences were largely insignificant. Our research reveals the polymorphic impacts of disclosure-related experiences on Internet users' privacy disclosure decisions and lays the foundation for future theoretical and practical work.

Pengaruh Pembiasaan Morning Activity Terhadap Pembentukan Karakter Religius Siswa Kelas X danXI Di SMA Plus Islamic Village Integrated Islamic School

This research aimed to discover the effect of habituation of morning activity carried out routinely before starting teaching and learning activities in the mornings in forming religious character in class X and XI students at Islamic Village Plus Integrated Islamic School Senior High School. This examine used a descriptive quantitative correlational type. The study subjects were students of classes X and XI of Islamic Village Plus Integrated Islamic School Senior High School, totalling 130 students. The inquiry applied a random cluster sampling technique, and data collection techniques utilised observation, questionnaires and documentation. The validity result adopted the Pearson Product Moment correlation technique and the Cronbach Alpha Reliability Test with the help of SPSS 26. The data analysis used a simple linear regression technique and the Pearson Product Moment correlation. The results indicated a positive effect of habituation of morning activity on forming students' religious character at Islamic Village Plus Integrated Islamic School Senior High School. This can be seen from the acquisition of the t value is 13,45. In comparison, the t table is 1,97, with a significance level is &lt; 0,05. The criteria H0 is rejected if t value ˃ t table at α = 5% with a value is 13,45 &gt; 1,97. This means that the contribution of the variable X (Morning Activity Habituation) with the variable Y (Formation of Students' Religious Character) is 58.6%, and the difference is 41.4% which was not examined in this study.

Social context modulates autonomic responses to direct eye contact

Eye contact with another person (social gaze) can evoke emotions, produce autonomic arousal, and influence behavior. Gaze cues can be evocative even when presented in static pictures of faces suggesting that responses depend on low-level visual features of gaze stimuli. The current study examined whether emotional gaze responses depend on the physical stimulus properties of an eye contact experience versus the cognitive evaluation of the social context of gaze. This was done by comparing skin conductance responses (SCR), an index of emotional arousal, during episodes of social gaze and 'self-gaze' (gazing at one's own eyes in a mirror), keeping other aspects of the viewing conditions constant. We compared SCRs during social gaze and self-gaze in forty participant pairs. Each participant engaged in ten, 20 second eye contact trials, alternating between social and self-gaze. Self-gaze episodes produced significant SCRs but social gaze SCR's were larger and occurred more reliably. SCRs decreased across trials (habituation effect) in both conditions. We speculated that social gaze between opposite sex partners might yield larger SCRs but this was not found. Overall, these results conceptually replicate previous findings of (likely top-town) cognitive regulation of autonomic gaze responses based on evaluation of the social context.

Impacts of Roads on Florida’s Threatened and Endangered Wildlife: An Overview

Roads impact a disproportionately larger area than the land area that they occupy, often called the road effect zone. This effect extends to wildlife populations. Impacts on federally listed species include habitat loss and fragmentation, road mortality, the barrier effect, and the habituation effect. Per the Endangered Species Act, these impacts must be assessed before roadway impacts occur. This publication provides an overview of the potential impacts to 29 of Florida’s threatened and endangered animal species from roads. Potential mitigation options include road configuration, signage, speed limits, habitat protection, improved technology, wildlife fencing, and wildlife crossing structures. The goal is to educate transportation engineers and planners to allow for sustainable transportation infrastructure growth while protecting, conserving, and ultimately recovering Florida’s threatened and endangered species.

Pelaksanaan Program Pembiasaan Keagamaan Dalam Pembentukan Karakter Religius Peserta Didik

Religious character education is one of the characters that need to be developed in students in cultivating behavior in accordance with Islamic religious teachings which are based on the Qur'an and Hadith. There are many students who act not in accordance with Islamic religious values ​​that apply both at school and in society. So religious character education needs to be implemented and realized. One important factor in growing the religious character of students is religious habituation. This study aims to determine the extent to which the effects of religious habituation in the formation of religious character at MI Maliaul Hikam. This research is qualitative research in which the data collected is not in the form of numbers but data comes from interview scripts, field notes, personal documents, memo notes, and other official documents carried out at MI Malihatul Hikam validly and can be accounted for. Activities before to after learning are an effective way of habituation to being able to foster the religious character of students, religious habituation activities can be trained and accustomed to every day. The results of religious habituation which are carried out every day and are repeated will always be embedded and can be remembered by students so that it is easy to do them without having to be warned again by the teacher.

Brain Activations during Retrieval of Colors Based on the Context of Cartoons

The color center exists in the bilateral fusiform gyrus, but it is unknown whether this region also functions when one retrieves color information through the context of a story. To compare the effects of presentation condition/order between color and monochrome on activations in the color center, we used high-quality cartoons with a full story. We hypothesize that retrieval of colors based on the context can be much more than color retrieval through object vision. The participants performed two sets of an empathy task while their brain activations were quantified by functional magnetic resonance imaging. While color-selective activations were observed in the bilateral fusiform gyrus, habituation effects were observed only under the condition in which unnatural inverted colors were used. We confirmed that the responses of these regions to cartoons in monochrome were at the control level of color-bars even for second-half scanning runs. Moreover, when a full story cartoon on one page was presented first in monochrome, strong activations were elicited in the bilateral fusiform gyrus, which demonstrated an interaction effect similar to that of the degree of empathy. These results indicate that colors were retrieved in the brain based on the context of a cartoon. (Received 5 September, 2022; Accepted 7 November, 2022; Published 1 February, 2023).

COVID-19, stigma, and habituation: evidence from mobility data

BackgroundThe Japanese government has restricted people’s going-out behavior by declaring a non-punitive state of emergency several times under COVID-19. This study aims to analyze how multiple policy interventions that impose non-legally binding restrictions on behavior associate with people’s going-out.TheoryThis study models the stigma model of self-restraint behavior under the pandemic with habituation effects. The theoretical result indicates that the state of emergency’s self-restraint effects weaken with the number of times.MethodsThe empirical analysis examines the impact of emergency declarations on going-out behavior using a prefecture-level daily panel dataset. The dataset includes Google’s going-out behavior data, the Japanese government’s policy interventions based on emergency declarations, and covariates that affect going-out behavior, such as weather and holidays.ResultsFirst, for multiple emergency declarations from the beginning of the pandemic to 2021, the negative association between emergency declarations and mobility was confirmed in a model that did not distinguish the number of emergency declarations. Second, in the model that considers the number of declarations, the negative association was found to decrease with the number of declarations.ConclusionThese empirical analyses are consistent with the results of theoretical analyses, which show that the negative association between people’s going-out behavior and emergency declarations decreases in magnitude as the number of declarations increases.

Reliability of repeated exposure to the human elevated plus-maze in virtual reality: Behavioral, emotional, and autonomic responses

Approach–avoidance conflicts are a hallmark of anxiety-related behaviors. A gold standard for assessing anxiety-related behaviors in rodents is the elevated plus-maze (EPM), which was recently translated to humans using immersive virtual reality. Repeated behavioral testing is particularly interesting for clinical and pharmacological research in humans but could be limited by habituation effects. Here, we tested whether comparable strategies that are used in rodents (different environments and inter-trial interval of 28 days) are sufficient to avoid habituation or sensitization effects on the EPM, making it possible to perform repeated measurement of anxiety-related behavior in humans. Moreover, we developed two novel virtual environments for repeated testing to explore whether a scenario resembling the real world is superior to a video game-like EPM in terms of lifelike physiological, emotional, and behavioral responses. On a behavioral level, no significant differences but a high correlation between first and repeated exposure to the human EPM independent of EPM version were found. On a psychophysiological level, salivary alpha-amylase, skin-conductance, and respiratory frequency increased at first and second exposure independent of EPM version. However, at repeated exposure, skin-conductance and heart rate showed indicators for anticipatory anxiety and a small sensitization effect, while no effect of real-world resemblance on these physiological measures was found. This was also reflected in slightly higher subjective anxiety levels at second exposure, although subjective anxiety still correlated strongly between first and second exposure. In conclusion, the human EPM can be used for longitudinal assessments of human anxiety-related behavior when strategies to avoid habituation and sensitization are considered.