Contingent Effects Research Articles

Gen Zs and millennials’ orientation towards AI tools: an index approach

ABSTRACT There is increasing engagement with AI tools; however, the extant literature needs a prominent tool to examine the factors that develop the attractiveness of AI tools to improve productivity. To this end, we developed an index of AI tool attractiveness (AI-ATT) based on the extended unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT2). This study proposed performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, hedonic motivation, and price value as potential formative constituents and enablers of AI-ATT. Based on 311 perceptual responses from Gen Zs and millennials residing in East India, and 224 from the West, this study developed a six-factor index for AI-ATT based on established best practices. Perceptual responses for the measurement and structural models using partial least squares. The contingent effect was evaluated using Process Macro in the SPSS 28. The developed index can also predict the behavioural intention of Gen Zs and millennials to use AI tools. Furthermore, the study underscores the significant contingent effect of generation (Gen Z vs. millennials) on each enabler’s role in AI ATT. The theoretical and practical implications are also discussed. This study is the first to develop a measurement scale for understanding the perceived attractiveness of AI tools.

Ownership types and corporate environmental investment: Contingent effects of institutional and corporate factors

Ownership types and corporate environmental investment: Contingent effects of institutional and corporate factors

The contingent effects of economic growth and institutions on income inequality: An empirical study

This study empirically investigates the moderating effects of institutions interacted with economic growth as determinants of cross-country income inequality. For a sample of 43 advanced and developing countries in the OECD and Varieties of Capitalism (VoC) literature over the period of 1995–2019, we test the hypothesis that the income inequality-increasing effects of GDP growth are reduced by robust institutions through interactive terms between economic growth and labour market institutions, gender-based institutions, and governance-based institutions. We use correlated random effects, feasible generalised least squares, and systems-generalised method of moments for panel data analysis using the Gini coefficient for post-tax and post-transfer household disposable income inequality as the dependent variable. Across all models, we find consistently significant statistical evidence for contingency effects between greater GDP growth rates and robust institutions. More specifically, the positive or inequality-increasing effects of greater GDP growth are shown to be reduced by stronger employment protection legislation and greater gender parity in education. Policy implications on inclusive growth thereby call for labour market reforms in terms of employment protection and improved access to education for women.

A power dependence model of the impact of leader impostorism on supervisor support and undermining: The moderating role of power distance.

Leaders, often perceived as possessing exceptional confidence and competence, are not immune to feelings of self-doubt. Leader impostorism describes the experience that one's attributes, experiences, skills, and abilities fall short of the standards expected in the leadership role, resulting in a sense of deception in fulfilling leadership responsibilities. While existing research has examined the antecedents and individual outcomes of leader impostorism, its implications for leaders' treatment of subordinates remain largely unexplored. In this research, we investigate the downstream consequences of leader impostorism on behaviors directed toward subordinates. Integrating research on leader impostorism with power dependence theory, we propose that for leaders with a low power distance orientation, leader impostorism increases supervisor support through the mechanism of perceived power dependence on subordinates, whereas for leaders with a high power distance orientation, leader impostorism increases supervisor undermining through the mechanism of power threat. The findings from two field studies support our theoretical model. This research contributes to the literature by broadening the understanding of the impact of leader impostorism on subordinates, extending power dependence theory within leader-subordinate dynamics, and offering insights into the dual nature of impostorism and its contingent effects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

The curvilinear and contingent effect of ethical climate on salesperson performance

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to provide empirical understanding germane to ethical climate’s contingent, nonlinear relationship with salesperson performance. While research shows a positive relationship between a firm’s ethical climate and salesperson performance, current examinations of this effect have been limited to linear hypothesizing and testing. The job demands-resource model, however, suggests that the relationship between ethical climate and salesperson performance is nonlinear.Design/methodology/approachTo test the theorized nonlinear and moderated nonlinear relationships, the authors use a sample of 485 business-to-business salespeople and structural equations path modeling.FindingsResults reveal an increasing incremental threshold effect between ethical climate and salesperson performance. Findings further support postulations that conditions which increase (e.g. competitive intensity) or decrease (e.g. role autonomy) the extent to which the sales environment is challenging correspondingly increase or decrease the magnitude of the nonlinearity.Research limitations/implicationsBecause the study required variance in environmental-level (e.g. competitive intensity) and organizational-level (e.g. role autonomy) moderators, data used to test the hypotheses came from a cross-sectional, self-reported survey.Practical implicationsThe results produce the managerial insight that there are increasing returns to salesperson performance as the ethical climate increases. Insights from the analysis of moderating conditions further inform managers that in highly competitive industries they should be especially attuned to their ethical climate.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, the findings are the first to advance insight into ethical climate’s curvilinear and contingent salesperson performance implications. Furthermore, this study advances moderated nonlinear relationships suggested by theory.

On the Evidence for Interactive Effects During and Following Synthesized Contingency Assessments

ABSTRACTSynthesized contingency assessments often arrange multiple stimulus changes (e.g., terminating instructions and providing interactive toy play) to follow problem behavior and to occur response independently across test and control conditions, respectively. A central premise of this approach to functional behavior assessment is that individual contingencies interact when delivered together, producing a reinforcing effect greater than the sum of its parts (i.e., the reinforcing effects of the individual contingencies programmed). Across three studies, we evaluated how often within‐participant evaluations from the published literature are consistent with this assumption during (Studies 1 and 2) and following (Study 3) the assessment process. Our results suggest that although such interaction can occur, it appears to do so only in a minority of cases. Implications of these findings for practice are discussed.

Gen Zs and service robots: examination of contingency effects

Gen Zs and service robots: examination of contingency effects

Эффект синергии транспортной сопряженности цепей поставок по маршрутам международного транспортного коридора «Север — Юг»: сценарный анализ

International transport corridors (ITC), as the main element of the formation of a new geo-economics, are becoming the most important object of research and development. Their impact on the economic growth of the countries adjacent to the routes, on the efficiency of cargo owners, transport operators, carriers, and infrastructure owners has no clear theoretical or empirical estimates. The purpose of this study is to substantiate and calculate the synergy effect indicator of transport connectivity of the North – South ITC, namely, to assess the maximum volumes of cargo transported along all ITC routes, taking into account the factors limiting its throughput and carrying capacity. Research methods: the scenario forecast for the development of the ITC was obtained by sampling — scenario distribution. In calculating the indicators for assessing the economic effects of the ITC routes, the method of comparing digital data with risk factors limiting rail freight flows was used. The analysis of the distance matrix for three ITC routes was used. The forecast of the estimated indicators is made by the method of dynamic analysis of successive series of indicators of rail freight transportation, characterizing each route, their changes over time. Results: based on the following indicators: throughput and carrying capacity of the ITC railway infrastructure; sustainable development index of the countries of the region; logistics index (customs and border clearance; quality of trade and transport infrastructure); “transportation costs” — the contingency effects were calculated, reflecting the maximum volumes of transported goods, taking into account the connectivity of infrastructure and modes of transport along all routes of the North – South ITC. Practical significance: scenario calculation of contingency effects along the ITC routes can be used in projects for he development of the transport and logistics infrastructure of the ITC, since it allows assessing the effects of growth in freight throughput.

Green Human Resource Management and Environmental Performance: The Mediating Role of Employee Commitment and the Contingent Effect of Organizational Culture

Organizations are increasingly implementing Green Human Resource Management (GHRM) practices to enhance Environmental Performance (ENVP) in response to growing sustainability demands. However, the pathways through which GHRM impacts ENVP, particularly the mediating role of Employee Commitment (EMPC) and the moderating effect of Organizational Culture (ORGC), remain insufficiently explored. This study employs a quantitative approach, collecting data from 348 valid responses through convenience sampling in Oman’s service sector. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to analyze direct, mediating, and moderating effects within the proposed framework. The results reveal that GHRM practices positively impact ENVP both directly and indirectly through EMPC. Employees’ commitment mediates this relationship by converting organizational sustainability strategies into tangible outcomes such as resource conservation and waste reduction. Additionally, ORGC moderates the GHRM-ENVP relationship, with supportive cultures amplifying the impact of GHRM practices on sustainability goals. This study underscores the strategic importance of integrating GHRM practices with a supportive culture to achieve superior environmental outcomes. By bridging theoretical gaps, it provides insights for policymakers and leaders to embed EMPC and ORGC into sustainability frameworks, aligning organizational practices with global environmental objectives.

Navigating sociopolitical waters: exploring the influence of key factors on global supply base concentration

PurposeVarious economic, strategic and sociopolitical factors drive the decisions related to the location of global supply chain partners. Yet, research on how sociopolitical factors affect these decisions is not that prevalent. We contribute to this line of research by evaluating the changes in global supply base concentration accounted for by three key sociopolitical factors – populism, state fragility and political constraints – that magnify or attenuate the effects of institutional risks, uncertainties and volatility.Design/methodology/approachApart from hypothesizing the negative effects of populism and state fragility, political constraints are conjectured to significantly attenuate these negative effects. The proposed hypotheses were motivated using the tenets of institutional economics theory and tested using a comprehensive dataset compiled from six widely used secondary data sources. The panel data spanning 2003–2018 focused on a sample of global US-listed companies with worldwide suppliers.FindingsOur results supported three of the four hypotheses. Specifically, the direct effects of populism and state fragility were found to be significant, suggesting that they reduced the number of suppliers in the country. However, political constraints did not moderate the effect of populism on global supply base concentration, while they negatively moderated the effect of the state fragility index. This result showcases the overpowering effect of populism on a country’s market environment.Originality/valueSupply chain scholars resoundingly acknowledge the need for more research on the effect of broader sociopolitical factors on global supply chain management. Responding to this call, we evaluate the direct and contingent effects of populism, state fragility and political constraints on global supply base concentration. Our choice of these factors was based on their representation of most of the critical institutional environments prevalent in various countries. One surprising result we found was that populism was found to be pervasive even in countries with strong checks and balances, suggesting its paramount importance to practicing management. Overall, by unraveling the interesting effects of these multidimensional sociopolitical factors, our study makes a valuable contribution to not only theory but also practice.

Foreign Aid, Infrastructure, and the Inclusive Growth Agenda in Sub‐Saharan Africa

ABSTRACTThis study examines the contingency effect of infrastructure (disaggregated into physical and digital) in the relationship between foreign aid and inclusive growth in Sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA). We employ macro data for 41 SSA countries and the dynamic system GMM estimator for the empirical analysis. We find that (i) foreign aid promotes inclusive growth in SSA, (ii) whereas transport infrastructure enhances inclusive growth, energy infrastructure, sanitation infrastructure, and digital infrastructure are statistically insignificant, and (iii) only transport infrastructure amplifies the inclusive growth‐enhancing effect of foreign aid. Across the digital and physical infrastructure domains, we find that the contingency effect of the latter is rather remarkable. Our threshold analysis also indicates that for digital infrastructure and transport infrastructure to condition complementary policies to foster inclusive growth in SSA, minimum thresholds of 22% and 57.8% are required. We conclude that comprehensive transport infrastructural development is key if foreign aid is to enhance inclusive growth in SSA.

Competence Perceptions at the Intersection of Gender and Race-Ethnicity

Competence perceptions represent a fundamental dimension of human perception and have wide-ranging consequences for social interaction. Therefore, it is no surprise that multiple prominent social psychological theories emphasize the role of competence perceptions. We know that both a person’s gender and race-ethnicity influence assumptions about their competence, but we have only a few studies examining the intersections of these factors. Using a large survey experiment (N = 1,219), I examine competence perceptions at the intersection of 2 gender and 13 racial-ethnic categories. Results show large effects of both gender and race-ethnicity and also highly intersectional stereotypes; that is, there is no one overarching effect of gender or race-ethnicity but instead contingent effects. By oversampling racial-ethnic minorities, I also test the assumption of consensus for competence perceptions. Results show highly consensual perceptions, suggesting we all recognize society’s stereotypes even if we do not agree with them.

How incentive alignment along the supply chain fosters incremental innovation: evidence from defence performance-based contracts

PurposeTo investigate how providers of product-service bundles design and manage their contracts with upstream suppliers to incentivise incremental innovation for the benefit of their downstream customers, who contract the provider based on performance.Design/methodology/approachAn embedded multiple-case study was conducted to examine elements of a European jet fighter’s manufacturing and after-sales supply chain. The embedded cases concern provider contracts with first-tier suppliers of product and service offerings. Data collection involved 21 semi-structured interviews, documents and other secondary data sources. Data analysis was informed by agency theory to assess the effectiveness of contract design and management in delivering incremental innovation and to identify related contracting strategies.FindingsWe identify four strategies for fostering incremental innovation in contracts between providers and their first-tier suppliers. These include two contract design strategies, i.e. reducing goal incongruence and addressing information asymmetry; and two contract management strategies, i.e. reducing outcome uncertainty and promoting inter-firm integration between providers and sub-suppliers.Practical implicationsThe research offers managerial guidelines regarding how providers can design and manage their tier-one supplier contracts to achieve incremental innovation. These include encouraging early supplier involvement, using focussed KPIs in contracts, and managing product and service-offering suppliers differently.Originality/valueThe research shows the contingent effect during contract design and management of a sub-supplier’s product vs. service offering, which, in turn, impacts incremental innovation. We also find that using focussed key performance indicators in sub-supplier contracts can be effective in improving product and service quality.

Analyzing AI adoption in European SMEs: A study of digital capabilities, innovation, and external environment

Analyzing AI adoption in European SMEs: A study of digital capabilities, innovation, and external environment

Exploring the enablers of virtual tourism experiences for Gen Z

PurposeThis study explored the enabler role of novelty-seeking and materialistic values on technology-based outcomes: usefulness, ease of use and enjoyment of virtual tourism. Furthermore, this study explored the direct effects of Gen Z’s word-of-mouth intentions. The study also explored the contingent effects of gender and educational level.Design/methodology/approachSurvey-based responses were gathered from 342 Gen Z participants using specific filtering criteria to ensure sample representativeness. Subsequently, the final responses were analysed using partial least squares.FindingsThe findings suggest a significant role for novelty-seeking and materialistic values in Gen Z’s overall perception of virtual tourism. Furthermore, with higher perceived usefulness, ease of use and enjoyment, Gen Zs are more inclined to share positive word-of-mouth for virtual tourism experiences.Originality/valueThis study aims to explore the orientation of Gen Zs toward virtual travel experiences in an emerging economy such as India. Implications for managers and practitioners are also discussed.

Riding on information-based advantages: Business group affiliation and cross-border acquisition completion

This study examines the impact of business group affiliation on the likelihood of completing cross-border acquisitions. Drawing on information asymmetry theory, we hypothesize that business group–affiliated firms are more likely to complete cross-border acquisition deals than standalone firms. Recognizing the role of formal and informal institutions in shaping information asymmetry in cross-border acquisition transactions, we also investigate the contingent effects of regulatory quality distance (a formal institutional factor) and cultural distance (an informal institutional factor) on the above relationship. Our empirical analysis, based on a sample of 1293 cross-border acquisition deals announced by Indian firms between 2000 and 2017, offers interesting insights. Specifically, we find that business group affiliation positively influences the likelihood of cross-border acquisition completion and that regulatory quality distance between the home and host countries attenuates this effect. However, contrary to our expectations, cultural distance also attenuates the positive impact of business group affiliation on cross-border acquisition completion, challenging the expectation that business group affiliation advantages would mitigate information asymmetry across all contexts. Thus, our study underscores the context-dependent nature of business group affiliation advantages, which are shaped by formal and informal institutional factors in cross-border acquisitions.

Complexity and accuracy of verbal morphology in written L2 Italian

Abstract The present study aims to verify previous findings on the role of proficiency in the degree of complexity and accuracy of verbal morphemes in written essays from intermediate and advanced L2 Italian learners. In addition, by taking the perspective of usage-based theories on the distributional properties in the input, it investigates the extent to which contingency affects morphological complexity and accuracy by the emergence of cue-outcome associations. Hypotheses on the effects of contingency and proficiency on complexity and accuracy, and on their mutual relationships, are verified by adopting a confirmatory approach and by using Structural equation modeling. Results support the claims for non-universal mechanisms in the acquisition of verbal morphology: proficiency does not affect the morphological complexity of learner texts in the same way in inflectionally rich and poor languages, and the cue-outcome mechanisms of associative learning work to different extents depending on the inflectional systems of the target languages.

Understanding technology transfer effectiveness in emerging economies: policy lessons for India

Purpose Despite technology transfer being emphasised in most public policy documents globally, it is not always clear how its effectiveness plays out in developing and emerging economies. This paper aims to bridge this gap by providing a systematic understanding of the processes of technology transfer, the antecedents and determinants, and finally how to measure its effectiveness, particularly in technologically dependent and emerging economies. Design/methodology/approach The paper puts forward a modified contingent effectiveness model of technology transfer based on Bozeman (2000) and Bozeman et al. (2015) and adapts it to incorporate the characteristics of emerging economies. Four major elements of technology transfer are discussed, namely, transfer object, actor characteristics, transfer environment, local environment and how they interact to determine effectiveness. Thereafter, the study shifts its focus to India’s evolving science technology and innovation (STI) ecosystem and discuss the current status, structure and major stakeholders associated with technology transfer. The study also reflects upon the challenges that inhibit effective technology transfer in India. In the last part, the study offers policy recommendations for improving the effectiveness of technology transfer, keeping in view India’s sustainable developmental goals. Findings A significant distinction of the conceptual model from its predecessors lies in its examination of the four dimensions of technology transfer effectiveness through the lens of developing and emerging economies, keeping in mind the inherent strengths, weaknesses and STI practices of the attendant local economy. As a novel contribution, the paper also discusses India’s evolving STI ecosystem backed by recent policy initiatives on technology transfer and the major stakeholders involved. Originality/value The paper constructs a modified contingent effectiveness model of technology transfer with particular emphasis on emerging economies. It also provides a comprehensive overview of India’s complex STI and technology transfer ecosystem, the challenges involved and offers recommendations for policy intervention.

Digital orientation and organizational resilience: the contingent effect of dynamic capabilities

ABSTRACT This study examines the contingent effect of dynamic capabilities (sensing, seizing, and reconfiguration) on the relationship between digital orientation (DOR) and organizational resilience (ORES) in Nigerian public sector organizations (PSOs), framed by Dynamic Capabilities Theory (DCT). A quantitative approach was employed, with data collected from 306 PSO employees using a questionnaire. The analysis, conducted via Smart-PLS, reveals that DOR positively influences ORES. Both sensing and seizing capabilities significantly strengthen the DOR-ORES relationship, while reconfiguration shows no significant moderating effect. The findings highlight the role of dynamic capabilities in enhancing organizational resilience within the digital transformation context of PSOs. The study contributes to the limited empirical research on dynamic capabilities and their contingent role in PSO resilience, providing key implications for future research and organizational practices.

An evolutionary perspective on capabilities for fluid product-markets: The contingent effects of routinization and renewal in marketing, R&D, and operations

An evolutionary perspective on capabilities for fluid product-markets: The contingent effects of routinization and renewal in marketing, R&D, and operations