Effect Of Biochar Addition Research Articles

Effects of Biochar Addition on the Properties of Alkali-Activated Materials

The addition of biochar to Portland cement composites has been proven to increase some of the material properties. The effect on alkali-activated materials has not been fully investigated. In this study, different recipes of metakaolin pastes at different biochar amounts are tested. Their physical and mechanical properties are analyzed to understand if any beneficial effects can be found even for alkali-activated binders. The results show that the addition of small amounts of biochar (<2 wt%) increases the compressive strength of metakaolin pastes (+15% after 28 days) and decreases the water absorption by capillarity, possibly leading to increased durability. Higher biochar content decreases the mechanical properties but provides higher dimensional stability and reduces the formation of efflorescence.

Effect of Biochar Addition on the Strength Properties of Metallurgical Dust Briquettes

Effect of Biochar Addition on the Strength Properties of Metallurgical Dust Briquettes

Impact of biochar prepared at different pyrolysis temperatures on the methane production and microbial community structure of food waste anaerobic digestion

Biochars were prepared through the pyrolysis of sawdust at 300 °C, 500 °C, and 700 °C, respectively, under oxygen-limited conditions. The basic physicochemical properties of biochars were explored by scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), surface area and porosity analyzer (BET), and Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR). The effects of biochar addition on the methane yield and microbial community structure of anaerobic digestion of food waste were also investigated. SEM images showed that biochar had a honeycomb-like pore structure, EDS analysis showed that the C content in the biochar tended to increase, and the O contents tended to decrease with the increasing temperature. The specific surface area of biochars increased from 1.2014 m2/g (300 °C) to 326.8435 m2/g (700 °C). FTIR analysis showed that the number of different surface functional groups decreased with the increasing temperature. The addition of biochar could increase the cumulative methane volume by 11.63%–25.18%. High-throughput sequencing results showed that biochar addition could increase the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Spirochaetota, which were associated with the degradation of refractory organic matters. Meanwhile, biochar addition could enrich the relative abundance of methanogens participating in direct electron transfer (Methanosaeta and Methanosarcina), and methanogens producing methane through multiple pathways (Methanobacterium and Methanosarcina). The addition of biochar derived at 700 °C significantly increased the relative abundance of Methanobacterium and Methanosarcina from 1.96% and 0.70% (control group) to 32.68% and 64.69%, respectively and improved methane production by transforming acetoclastic/hydrogenotrophic methanogenic pathways to more metabolically diverse methanogenic pathways.

Effect of Biochar Addition on Biogas Production Using Konjac Waste through Mesophilic Two-Phase Anaerobic Digestion

Effect of Biochar Addition on Biogas Production Using Konjac Waste through Mesophilic Two-Phase Anaerobic Digestion

Effect of biochar addition on nutritional status, maturity, and phytotoxicity of cow dung-fortified kitchen waste

Effect of biochar addition on nutritional status, maturity, and phytotoxicity of cow dung-fortified kitchen waste

Effects of biochar addition on soil fauna communities—A meta‐analysis

AbstractSoil fauna is an important part of global biodiversity and plays a vital role in ecosystems. The microbial communities in soil fauna can have significant impacts on soil fertility, as microbial communities play a pivotal role in soil function by supporting ecological integrity and agricultural productivity. This study assesses the effect of biochar on soil fauna and response of microbial communities. Biochar is a highly porous organic carbon material, and the impact of biochar on microbial communities in soil fauna remains unclear. To date, no quantitative or comprehensive investigation has been undertaken to examine the effects of biochar on microbial communities in soil fauna. In this paper, we aim to quantify the effects of biochar on the abundance and diversity of soil fauna communities in various environments by conducting a meta‐analysis of 24 studies and analysing 459 observations. The impact of biochar on soil fauna communities was determined by analysing the responses of soil fauna that included differences in biochar feedstock, pH and pyrolysis, application rates and application times, as well as soil fauna with different physiological characteristics (body size, presence of exoskeletons). The results showed that biochar had a neutral (non‐significant) effect on the soil fauna community, with a total mean effect size (Hedge's g) = −0.04 (CI: −0.28; −0.20). Results Data validation using Egger regression showed no publication bias. Higher pH biochar and biochar from conventional pyrolysis were beneficial to soil fauna, but not significant (QM (df = 3) = 4.07, p = .25). In addition, body size of soil animals significantly reflected different sensitivities to biochar application, with Medium‐sized animals benefiting the most from biochar addition (0.35; CI: 0.05; 0.65; n = 6; 56). Animals with (n = 11; 125) and without exoskeletons (n = 17; 308) also showed favourable and unfavourable responses to biochar addition, respectively. This study can provide basic data for the evolutionary pattern of animal communities during biochar soil amendment, as well as information for the comprehensive evaluation of the environmental and biological effects of biochar.

Effect of biochar addition on the anaerobic digestion of food waste: microbial community structure and methanogenic pathways.

This study assessed the effects of the addition of biochar prepared at 700 °C with different dosages on the anaerobic digestion of food waste. The biochar addition at a concentration of 10.0 g/L increased the cumulative methane yield by 128%, and daily methane production was also significantly promoted. The addition of biochar derived from poplar sawdust significantly increased the relative abundance of dominant bacteria for anaerobic digestion by 85.54-2530% and promoted the degradation of refractory organic matter and the transfer of materials between the hydrolysis and acid production stages. Further analysis has demonstrated that Bathyarchaeia and hydrogenotrophic methanogens were enriched by the biochar addition. Meanwhile, the relative abundances of functional genes, including C5-branched dibasic acid metabolism, and pyruvate metabolism, were increased by 11.38-26.27%. The relative abundances of genes related to major amino acid metabolism, including histidine metabolism, lysine biosynthesis, and phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis, were increased by 11.96-15.71%. Furthermore, the relative abundances of genes involved in major replication and repair were increased by 14.76-22.76%, and the major folding, sorting, degradation, and translation were increased by 14.47-19.95%, respectively. The relative abundances of genes related to major membrane transport and cell motility were increased by 10.02 and 83.09%, respectively.

Biochar application induces different responses of bacterial and fungal communities to metabolic limitation

AbstractBiochar, an environmentally friendly soil amendment, has the potential to alleviate soil degradation. However, the mechanisms and effects of biochar addition on soil microbes and metabolic limitation in degraded soils are still ambiguous because of the complex ecosystem and the varying conditions of planting. Therefore, a field experiment with six biochar application rates (0, 24, 60, 96, 132, and 168 Mg ha−1, applied in the 0–20 cm soil layer) was conducted in a loessial soil without planting to determine the response of metabolic limitation and the microbial community to the biochar application rate. Soil samples were collected in mid‐May and mid‐August (before and during the rainy season). The results showed that the soil microbial metabolic activity without biochar application was phosphorus (P) limited in mid‐May (vector angle = 81.37 ± 0.31°) and nitrogen (N) limited in mid‐August (vector angle = 27.36 ± 1.54°), and nutrient limitations generally decreased in the biochar treatments. Structural equation modeling indicated that microbial metabolic restriction was mainly influenced by biochar‐induced changes in element stoichiometric ratios and available phosphorus (p < 0.05). Under the influence of biochar content, only the carbon (C) limitation influenced bacterial composition by directly or indirectly affecting dissolved organic carbon and NO3−–N. However, the fungal composition was strongly shaped by both C limitation and P/N limitation. Our results indicated that the soil P status and its stoichiometric ratios play an important role in the biochar effects on metabolic limitation and that bacteria and fungi have different compositional responses to metabolic limitation in loessial soil.

Effect of biochar addition on CO2 emission from salt-affected soils under drying-rewetting conditions

Under the conditions of global climate change, soils have undergone more complex and frequent cycles of wetting and drying, which has had a significant impact on soil respiration. In order to explore the response of CO2 emissions from salt-affected soils to biochar (BC) at different pyrolysis temperatures under drying-rewetting conditions, an indoor microcosmic culture experiment was conducted to add maize straw BC at different pyrolysis temperatures (300°C and 600°C) to salt-affected soils to study the influence of BC at different pyrolysis temperatures on the characteristics of CO2 emissions under drying-rewetting conditions. The results indicated that the addition of BC significantly altered the CO2 emission rate from the soil, subsequently influencing the mineralization of soil organic carbon. BC produced at varying pyrolysis temperatures exhibited distinct effects on the CO2 emission rates. Specifically, BC pyrolyzed at high temperatures inhibited the mineralization of soil organic carbon, whereas BC produced at low temperatures facilitated this mineralization process. This finding will provide a theoretical and scientific foundation for assessing the carbon sequestration potential of coastal wetlands and for the development of carbon sequestration technologies.

Effect of biochar addition on water–salt distribution and growth of winter wheat in coastal saline‐alkali soils under brackish water irrigation

AbstractTo investigate water‐saving and yield‐enhancing improvement programmes suitable for saline‐alkali soils in the Yellow River Delta region, this study conducted outdoor pot experiments utilizing local moderately saline‐alkali soils as research subjects. The primary focus was to examine the impact of biochar addition on water and salt distribution in saline‐alkali soils and its effect on winter wheat growth under brackish water irrigation conditions. The study design established three different irrigation water mineral concentrations (0, 2 and 4 g L−1) during the research. Two types of biochar, wheat straw biochar (WB) and corn straw biochar (CB), were used with four different applications (0, 5, 10 and 20 t ha−1). There were 21 treatments; each replicated three times. These findings demonstrated that brackish water irrigation and biochar application contributed to a notable increase in soil water content (SWC), with increases ranging from 12.8 to 83.9% across treatments. Using brackish water for irrigation increases soil salt content (SSC) and exacerbates soil salinization. However, the application of biochar counteracts this effect by reducing soil salinity and mitigating the degree of salinization. Treatments applying biochar mostly increased SSC, but proper application had a salinity‐reducing effect, reducing SSC by up to 15.2%. And biochar reduced the soil sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), mitigating the adverse effects of high salinity on winter wheat. Finally, the application of biochar promoted the growth of winter wheat and increased yield, with the treatment applying 10 t ha−1 of CB (K2Y10) producing the greatest yield under brackish water irrigation conditions and increased by 18% compared with the treatment without biochar (CK0). In summary, considering the aspects of water conservation, salt reduction and yield increase, the most effective saline land improvement programme for this region involved using 2 g L−1 brackish water for irrigation in combination with applying K2Y10. This approach balances addressing soil salinity, enhancing water conservation and maximizing crop yields.

Effect of different biochar additions on the change of carbon nitrogen content and bacterial community in meadow soils

ABSTRACT Meadow soils are one of the important agricultural soil types, biochar is a good soil amendment, whereas the studies on the effects of biochar additions on carbon and nitrogen contents, as well as bacterial communities of meadow soils, were seldom carried out. The effects of one nitrogen addition rates (no addition, 0.2% addition) and two biochar addition patterns (no addition, 1% addition, 3% addition) on the carbon and nitrogen contents, as well as bacterial communities of meadow soils, were investigated by conducting a one-year indoor incubation experiment. Biochar addition increased the relative abundance of Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi and Bacteroidota. The combination of biochar and nitrogen source significantly increased the total organic carbon, ammonium nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen and total nitrogen content of the meadow soil. Therefore, the addition of moderate amounts of biochar to meadow soils can contribute to sustainable ecological agriculture as a form of soil improvement.

Response of soil respiration and carbon budget to irrigation quantity/quality and biochar addition in a mulched maize field under drip irrigation.

Biochar addition strongly alters net carbon (C) balance in agroecosystems. However, the effects of biochar addition on net C balance of maize field under various irrigation water quantities and qualities remains unclear. Thus, a field experiment combining two irrigation levels of full (W1) and deficit irrigation (W2 = 1/2 W1), two water salinity levels of fresh (S0, 0.71 g L-1 ) and brackish water (S1, 4 g L-1 ), and two biochar addition rates of 0 t ha-1 (B0) and 60 t ha-1 (B1) was conducted to investigate soil carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions, maize C sequestration and C budget. Compared with W1, W2 reduced average cumulative CO2 emissions by 6.5% and 19.9% for 2020 and 2021, respectively. The average cumulative CO2 emissions under W1S1 treatments were 5.4% and 22.3% lower than W1S0 for 2020 and 2021, respectively, whereas W2S0 and W2S1 had similar cumulative CO2 emissions in both years. Biochar addition significantly increased cumulative CO2 emissions by 17.8-23.5% for all water and salt treatments in 2020, and reduced average cumulative CO2 emissions by 11.9% for W1 but enhanced it by 8.0% for W2 in 2021. Except for W2S1, biochar addition effectively increased total maize C sequestration by 6.9-14.8% for the other three treatments through ameliorating water and salt stress over the 2 years. Compared with W1S0, W1S1 did not affect net C sequestration, but W2 treatments significantly decreased it. Biochar addition increased net C sequestration by 39.47-43.65 t C ha-1 for four water and salt treatments for the 2 years. These findings demonstrate that biochar addition is an effective strategy to increase both crop C sequestration and soil C storage under suitable water-saving irrigation methods in arid regions with limited freshwater resources. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Experimental evaluation on the effect of biochar addition with anaerobic digestion of the tannery wastewater to improve biogas production

Abstract The use of biochar as an additive material in various compositions to the anaerobic digestion of the tannery wastewater was investigated. Pyrolytic biochar made from Khat waste with different compositions was added to anaerobic batch digesters in laboratory-scale experiments. Biogas digesters of 500 ml volume were used to explore the effects of biochar on anaerobic digestion in the ratios of 5, 10, 15, and 20% (w/w) at constant mesophilic temperature (38 °C). The results show that for five experimental tests in digesters (D0, D1, D2, D3, and D4), which contains 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% of biochar, the cumulative methane and biogas yields were, respectively, 17.04, 41.2, 43.8, 51.6, 48.6% and 150, 520, 680, 760, 690ml. Compared to the cumulative methane production efficiency of the digester without biochar (D0), the addition of 5, 10, 15, and 20% biochar had more favorable effects and increased the efficiency by 58.6, 61.1, 66.98, and 64.94%, respectively. From these results, adding 15% of biochar to anaerobic digestion causes a three-fold increase in methane compared to the control and more positive effects than all other biochar compositions. According to this result, the right dose of biochar must be added to maximize biogas production.

Effect of biochar on compressive strength and fracture performance of concrete

The production of cement aggravated the release of CO2 into the atmosphere. The replacement of cement by carbon neutral biochar will reduce CO2 emissions. In this study, therefore, the effects of biochar addition and age on compressive strength and fracture performance of concrete were investigated. The results revealed that the compressive strength, load bearing capacity, and initial fracture toughness of biochar-modified concrete increased firstly and then decreased with the increase of biochar addition. 1 wt% replacement of cement with biochar was identified as the optimal content in terms of compressive strength. For three-point bending beams, the biochar-modified concrete with 3 wt% replacement of cement with biochar showed better load bearing capacity and crack resistance, and the damage scale was lower at the same loading stage. The biochar addition reduced the ductility of concrete and fracture energy. When the biochar addition was 3 wt%, the fracture energy of biochar-modified concrete at different ages (7d, 14d and 28d) reduced by 3.6%, 33.3% and 33.2%, respectively, compared with that of plain concrete. The compressive strength, load bearing capacity and initial fracture toughness gradually increased with the increase of curing time. The replacement of cement by biochar promoted the compressive strength and fracture performance of concrete, which provided a CO2-reducing way for the production of concrete.

Effect of biochar addition on crop yield, water and nitrogen use efficiency: A meta-analysis

Biochar is a widely used soil amendment that has positive effects on improving soil quality, promoting resource efficiency of agricultural production, and reducing environmental pollution. In order to better play the potential role of biochar in agricultural production and optimize the addition strategies of biochar. This study conducted extraction analysis, random forest simulation and win-win analysis on 381 datasets from 63 studies around the world. The results showed that the addition of biochar increased crop yield by 14.45%, water use efficiency (WUE) by 14.28% and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) by 13.97%. Among them, the key factors affecting the addition effect of biochar were soil organic carbon (SOC), soil total nitrogen (Soil-TN), soil bulk density, biochar carbon content (Biochar-TC) and biochar carbon nitrogen ratio (Biochar-C:N). In addition, the application of biochar with less carbon content (TC ≤ 200 g kg−1, C:N between 50 and 100) in the soil with large bulk density (>1.4 g cm−3) and low nutrients (SOC between 10 and 15 g kg−1, TN ≤ 0.5 g kg−1) could better achieve a win-win situation in crop productivity and resource use efficiency. Our findings can help to formulate the addition strategies of biochar.

Effects of biochar additions on the mechanical stability of soil aggregates and their role in the dynamic renewal of aggregates in slope ecological restoration

Mechanical stability of soil aggregates is important for resisting external disturbances in slope soils. Biochar (BC) is widely used in slope remediation. However, biochar application may not be conducive to the formation of mechanical-stable soil aggregates, and the effects of biochar additions on the mechanical stability of soil aggregates in slope restoration remain largely unclear. In this context, an incubation experiment was conducted in this study with four biochar levels added to artificial soil, namely 0 % (BC0), 1.5 % (BC1), 3 % (BC2), and 4.5 % (BC3), corresponding approximately to 0, 0.77, 1.53 and 2.30 M ha−1, respectively. The contributions of different soil aggregate fractions to maintaining the mechanical stability of aggregates, as well as the main influencing factors and pathways of biochar additions on soil aggregate stability in a dynamic renewal process of aggregates, were investigated in this study. The results showed a decreasing trend in the mean weight diameter (MWD) with increasing biochar levels and BC1 has no significant difference with BC0, showing MWD values of 2.74 and 2.75, respectively. In contrast, BC3 is significantly lower MWD value of 2.18. The BC3 exhibited negative impact on the mechanical stability of the aggregates. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that large macroaggregates (>5 mm) exhibited a stronger contribution on the aggregate mechanical stability between all soil aggregate fractions. The random forest (RF) algorithm and structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that microaggregate-associated soil organic carbon (SOC) contents and soil pH values were the main factors driving the changes in the aggregate mechanical stability caused by biochar applications. Indeed, the biochar level of 1.5 % maintained the stability of macroaggregates and increased the microaggregate-associated SOC content by 35.7 %, which was conducive to the formation of microaggregates within macroaggregates. Our study suggests that the application of biochar at a level of 1.5 % is more beneficial for maintaining the mechanical stability of artificial soil aggregates.

The Effect of Biochar Addition on Thermal Stability and Decomposition Mechanism of Poly(butylene succinate) Bionanocomposites.

In the present study, poly(butylene succinate) (PBSu) and its bionanocomposites containing 1, 2.5, and 5 wt.% biochar (MSP700) were prepared via in situ melt polycondensation in order to investigate the thermal stability and decomposition mechanism of the materials. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements were carried out to analyze the surface area of a biochar sample and PBSu/biochar nanocomposites. From XPS, it was found that only physical interactions were taking place between PBSu matrix and biochar nanoadditive. Thermal stability, decomposition kinetics, and the decomposition mechanism of the pristine PBSu and PBSu/biochar nanocomposites were thoroughly studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). TGA thermograms depicted that all materials had high thermal stability, since their decomposition started at around 300 °C. However, results indicated a slight reduction in the thermal stability of the PBSu biochar nanocomposites because of the potential catalytic impact of biochar. Py-GC/MS analysis was employed to examine, in more detail, the thermal degradation mechanism of PBSu nanocomposites filled with biochar. From the decomposition products identified by Py-GC/MS after pyrolysis at 450 °C, it was found that the decomposition pathway of the PBSu/biochar nanocomposites took place mainly via β-hydrogen bond scission, which is similar to that which took place for neat PBSu. However, at higher biochar content (5 wt.%), some localized differences in the intensity of the peaks of some specific thermal degradation products could be recognized, indicating that α-hydrogen bond scission was also taking place. A study of the thermal stability and decomposition pathway of PBSu/biochar bionanocomposites is crucial to examine if the new materials fulfill the requirements for further investigation for mulch films in agriculture or in electronics as possible applications.

Effects of biochar addition on anaerobic co‐digestion of sewage sludge and swine manure: copper immobilization and digestion performance

AbstractBACKGROUNDA significant concentration of the heavy metal Cu is found in sludge and swine manure, and excessive agricultural use of Cu can seriously inhibit plant growth. There is a critical need for an effective technology to address the issue of biotoxicity.RESULTSThis study aimed to immobilize heavy metal Cu and decrease its bioavailability by adding biochar for anaerobic co‐digestion (AcoD) with swine manure and sludge. Coconut shell biochar (CSB), bamboo biochar (BC) and fruit shell biochar (FSB) were prepared by pyrolysis based on coconut shell, bamboo and fruit shell as precursors. Anaerobic co‐digestion experiments were designed (sludge inoculation ratio: 20% of working volume), a biochar dosing ratio of 5% (dry weight of swine manure) and the effects on Cu immobilization and biogas production performance were investigated. CSB had a larger specific surface area (765.2 m2 g−1) and more abundant surface functional groups (CO, CO, OCO, OH) than BC and FSB. CSB treatment demonstrated that the ultimate cumulative biogas production was 360.27 mL g−1 volatile solid – 76.30% higher than the control (no addition). CSB addition decreased the amount of diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid‐extractable Cu to 19.75 mg kg−1 (immobilizing 75%). The correlation between environmental factors (pH, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, total organic carbon) and Cu immobilization was verified by redundancy analysis, and a positive correlation was revealed between phosphorus content and the Cu immobilization effect.CONCLUSIONThis article presented comparative biochar research and contributed to assessing the environmental risk of Cu in anaerobic digestion. It guided the application of biochar for the treatment of heavy metal pollution. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Effect of Biochar Addition on Nutrient Cycle and Water Quality in Urban Rivers as an Environmental Health Promotion Effort

The potential use of biochar as a solution provides an intriguing opportunity to improve the health of these rivers while also delivering other benefits such as carbon sequestration and better soil health. The purpose of this project is to look into the impact of adding biochar to urban rivers on nitrogen cycling and water quality. A randomized full block design will be used in the study, with three treatment groups and one control group. The experimental setup is a controlled laboratory setting. The study's findings reveal that adding biochar to urban river sediments has a considerable positive influence on water quality metrics such as nitrogen and phosphorus levels. Furthermore, our research shows that the addition of biochar has the ability to considerably increase carbon while decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, our findings provide useful insights into the prospective benefits of employing biochar to promote river health in the Banjar district.

Effect of biochar addition and reduced irrigation regimes on growth, physiology and water use efficiency of cotton plants under salt stress

To alleviate the salinity and drought stresses faced in agricultural production, and to improve crop water use efficiency (WUE) in drought-prone regions, novel management strategies are needed. The combination of biochar amendment and reduced irrigation regimes could mitigate the negative effects of salinity and drought stresses and improve WUE of cotton plants. A split-root pot trial was performed in order to investigate the effects of two biochar amendments [wheat straw pellets biochar (WSP) and soft wood pellets biochar (SWP)] combined with three irrigation schemes [full irrigation (FI), deficit irrigation (DI), and partial root-zone drying irrigation (PRD)] on the growth, physiology and WUE of cotton plants under two salinity levels [0 mM NaCl (S0) and 200 mM NaCl (S1)]. The results showed that salt stress depressed plant growth and physiology, and reduced seed cotton yield and lint yield by 19.33–47.22% and 40.43–58.81%, respectively. However, the biochar amendment alleviated salt stress and increased plant dry biomass allocation ratio by 3.85%–12.54%, 5.07%–14.39% and 9.78%–46.62% in boll, seed cotton and lint cotton under S1, respectively, and also increased lint ginning out turn (GOT), harvest index (HI), WUE at plant and yield level (WUEp and WUEy) by 0.21%–28.69%, 5.07%–14.39%, −0.30%–15.71% and 5.83%–32.44%, respectively. Moreover, WSP was superior to SWP in terms of improving plant growth and yield. PRD showed better growth and physiological effects than DI, especially WUEp and WUEy were 6.88%–13.73% and 9.16%–22.78% greater under PRD than under DI. The combined application of biochar and PRD counteracted the decrease in WUE caused by biochar application alone under S0. Collectively, WSP combined with PRD could be a promising strategy in sustainable cotton production under drought and salinity stress.