Effect Of Different Stages Research Articles

Effect of different stages of Schistosoma mansoni infection on the parasite burden and immune response to Strongyloides venezuelensis in co-infected mice.

Multiple schistosome and soil-transmitted nematode infections are frequently reported in human populations living in tropical areas of developing countries. In addition to exposure factors, the host immune response plays an important role in helminth control and morbidity in hosts with multiple infections; however, these aspects are difficult to evaluate in human populations. In the current study, female Swiss mice were simultaneously co-infected with Strongyloides venezuelensis and Schistosoma mansoni or infected with St. venezuelensis at 2, 4, or 14weeks after Sc. mansoni infection. The simultaneously infected mice showed a similar parasite burden for St. venezuelensis compared with mono-infected mice. In contrast, there was a significant reduction of St. venezuelensis burden (primarily during the migration of the larvae) in mice that were previously infected with Sc. mansoni at the acute or chronic phase. Independent of the stage of Sc. mansoni infection, the St. venezuelensis co-infection was capable of inducing IL-4 production in the small intestine, increasing the IgE concentration in the serum and increasing eosinophilia in the lungs and intestine. This result suggests that the nematode infection stimulates local type 2 immune responses independently of the schistosomiasis stage. Moreover, previous Sc. mansoni infection stimulated early granulocyte infiltration in the lungs and trematode-specific IgM and IgG1 production that recognized antigens from St. venezuelensis infective larvae; these immune responses would act in the early control of St. venezuelensis larvae. Our data suggest that the effect of multiple helminth infections on host susceptibility and morbidity largely depends on the species of parasite and the immune response.

In vitro and in vivo studies of the immunomodulatory effect of Echinacea purpurea on dendritic cells.

BackgroundExtracts of Echinacea have been used traditionally for the treatment of diverse types of infections and wounds. They have become very familiar immunostimulant herbal medicine. However, the specific immunomodulatory effect of Echinacea remains to be elucidated.AimIn our study, the effect of Echinacea purpurea extract on the generation of immature DCs from monocytes was described, as well as its effect on DC differentiation. In addition, an in vivo experiment was conducted to investigate whether treatment of mice with extracts derived from E. purpurea has immunomodulatory effect on murine splenic DCs.MethodsImmature DCs were generated by incubating peripheral blood monocytes with cytokine cocktail (GM-CSF + IL-4) and matured by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). The cells were randomized to 5 groups to investigate E. purpurea effect in different stages. Phenotypic analysis of cell marker CD83-expressed on DCs was performed by flow cytometry. Mice were randomly divided into 3 groups; control, E. purpurea treated and E. purpurea-TNF-α treated group. The murine splenic DCs were isolated and phenotyped for CD83 and CD11c by flow cytometry.ResultsTreatment of monocytes with E. purpurea prior to addition of the maturation factor TNF-α resulted in a significant decrease in the yield of DC expressing CD83. On the other hand, immature DCs generated in the culture in the presence of GM-CSF and IL-4, when treated simultaneously with E. purpurea and TNF-α, exhibited an insignificant change in the yield of CD83-expressing DCs compared with untreated control. The in vivo experiments showed that splenic DCs obtained from mice treated with E. purpurea with or without TNF-α did not exhibit significant changes in CD83 or CD11c compared with those obtained from control mice.ConclusionOur findings suggest that the immunomodulatory mechanisms of E. purpurea impact generation fate of DCs rather than differentiation stages. The results obtained in the in vivo study utilizing murine splenic DCs supported those observed in vitro.

Renal Impairment and Prognosis of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation Undergoing Coronary Intervention - The AFCAS Trial.

BackgroundRenal impairment is a well-known risk factor for cardiovascular complications, but the effect of different stages of renal impairment on thrombotic/thromboembolic and bleeding complications in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) remains largely unknown. We sought to evaluate the incidence and clinical impact of four stages of renal impairment in patients with AF undergoing PCI.MethodsWe assessed renal function by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and outcomes in 781 AF patients undergoing PCI by using the data from a prospective European multicenter registry. End-points included all-cause mortality, major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events (MACCE) and bleeding events at 12 months.ResultsA total of 195 (25%) patients had normal renal function (eGFR ≥90 mL/min), 290 (37%) mild renal impairment (eGFR 60-89), 263 (34%) moderate renal impairment (eGFR 30–59) and 33 (4%) severe renal impairment (eGFR <30). Degree of renal impairment remained an independent predictor of mortality and MACCE in an adjusted a Cox regression model. Even patients with mild renal impairment had a higher risk of all-cause mortality (HR 2.25, 95%CI 1.02-4.98, p=0.04) and borderline risk for MACCE (HR 1.56, 95%CI 0.98- 2.50, p=0.06) compared to those with normal renal function.ConclusionsRenal impairment is common in patients with AF undergoing PCI and even mild renal impairment has an adverse prognostic effect in these patients requiring multiple antithrombotic medications.

Effect of different stages of fruit maturity and size grading on seed quality in jatropha (Jatropha curcas)

The seed quality of Jatropha harvested at different stages of fruit maturity was evaluated to determine the right stage of harvesting for getting high quality seeds at Karaikal, Puducherry (UT) in the year 2011. One hundred freshly opened flowers were tagged at anthesis in 25 numbers of two year old trees. The fruit set in each tagged flower was recorded for seven weeks, consecutively. The results revealed that, only 59 per cent of the flowers set fruits and four different colour changes in fruits, viz. light green (Stage I), lemon yellow (Stage II), dark brown (Stage III) and dark brown with hairline cracks (Stage IV) were observed during maturation at 21, 28, 42 and 49 days after anthesis (DAA), respectively. Observation on seed germination indicated that the seeds obtained from stage III was on par with stage IV (68 per cent) and excelled stage I (4 per cent) and stage II (56 per cent). Between stages III and IV, the seeds obtained from stage III was found to be superior to stage IV, attributed due to higher vigour index and hence considered as the stage of physiological maturity for Jatropha. The larger sized capsules had excelled medium and smaller sized in terms of both vigour and viability and emphasized the significance of size grading for elite seedling production in Jatropha.

Acaricidal properties of the formulations based on essential oils from Cymbopogon winterianus and Syzygium aromaticum plants.

The cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, has caused serious harm to livestock raising in Brazil, considering the costs of controlling it, loss of revenue due to smaller production of milk and meat, and damage to leather, in addition to transmitting diseases. The use of medicinal plants is considered an alternative to the recurring resistance to chemicals. Due to the need for efficient alternatives with less environmental impact, this study aimed to develop contact formulations with essential oils from the Java citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus) and clove (Syzygium aromaticum) plants and to assess in vitro the effects in different stages of the tick cycle. In the present study, concentrations from 0.5-15.0% of the essential oils incorporated in the formulations were used. The ticks from different geographical areas were treated with those formulations, and their effects on the production levels of eggs, on the larvae hatching, and their efficiency on ticks were assessed. The obtained results were compared with other commercial acaricidal products. After the 20th day of treatment, the formulations with citronella essential oil had 2.09-55.51% efficiency, depending on the concentration of the oil incorporated. The efficiency of the treatment with formulations containing clove essential oil was higher, from 92.47-100%. The results showed the acaricidal effects of the formulations tested when compared to commercial chemical products. In vivo studies should be performed in order to assess the efficiency of those formulations in the fields, aiming to use these products as an alternative for controlling cattle ticks.

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations and risk of prostate cancer: results from the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial.

Epidemiologic studies have reported inconsistent associations of vitamin D and prostate cancer risk; however, few have adequately controlled for detection bias related to prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening, and the results of many studies may be affected by occult prostate cancers among controls. Data for this nested case-control analysis (n = 1,695 cases/1,682 controls) are from the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial. Baseline serum was analyzed for 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D]. The presence or absence of cancer was subsequently determined by prostate biopsy. Polytomous logistic regression models were used to estimate associations of 25(OH)D with risk of total, Gleason 2-6, Gleason 7, and Gleason 8-10 prostate cancer. Results are presented for placebo and finasteride arms separately and combined. There were no associations of serum 25(OH)D with total prostate cancer risk. For Gleason 2-6 cancers, results were inconsistent across treatment arms with a suggestion of increased risk in the placebo arm only; however, there was no dose-response relationship. For Gleason 8-10 prostate cancers, 25(OH)D concentrations were associated with a linear decrease in risk among combined treatment arms [quartile 4 vs. 1: OR, 0.55; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.32-0.94; P(trend) = 0.04]. These findings were somewhat stronger among men ≥65 versus 55-64 years at baseline (quartile 4 vs. 1: OR, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.18-0.88 vs. OR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.35-1.52, respectively; P(interaction) = 0.52). Higher serum 25(OH)D may modestly increase risk of Gleason 2-6 disease and more substantially reduce risk of Gleason 8-10 prostate cancer. Vitamin D may have different effects for different stages of prostate cancers.

The renoprotective effects of berberine via the EP4-Gαs-cAMP signaling pathway in different stages of diabetes in rats

Aims: To investigate the renoprotective roles of berberine (BBR) in different stages of diabetic nephropathy (DN) in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats fed a high-sugar and high-fat diet. Methods: Diabetes was induced in mice by intraperitoneal injection of STZ, and the mice were then randomly divided into groups: normal, diabetes, high-sugar and high-fat and BBR (high, median and low dose) groups. The body weight (BW), kidney weight to body weight (KW/BW), blood urea nitrogen, urine total protein to urine creatinine ratio and serum creatinine were measured on different weeks throughout the study. The protein levels of E prostanoid receptor 4 (EP4), Gαs and content of cAMP in the kidney were, respectively, detected by western blot analysis and RIA analysis. Results: In the DN rats, there was remarkable renal damage. BBR restored renal functional parameters, suppressed alterations in histological and ultrastructural changes in the kidney tissues and increased EP4, Gαs and cAMP levels compared with those of the DN model group. In addition, BBR has different therapeutic effects during the different stages of the development of DN, and it works best in the sixth week. Conclusion: These studies demonstrate, for the first time, that BBR exerts renoprotective effects in different stages of DN via EP4- Gαs- AC-cAMP signaling pathway in STZ-induced DN rats fed a high-sugar and high-fat diet.

The influence of French fries processing on the glycoalkaloid content in coloured-fleshed potatoes

French fries made from coloured-fleshed potatoes may be interesting alternative to the traditional snacks for consumers. However, potatoes contain glycoalkaloids (TGA), so potato tubers and obtained fried snacks should be subjected to comprehensive examination. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different stages of French fries processing on the content of TGA (α-solanine and α-chaconine) in the red- and blue-fleshed potatoes, in semi-products and ready-to-eat products. It was stated that during the processing of French fries prepared from coloured-flesh potato varieties significantly decreased the content of TGA (α-solanine and α-chaconine) in the samples obtained at different stages of the process compared to the raw material. Potatoes with blue-fleshed of Vitelotte variety and red-fleshed of Highland Burgundy Red variety can be used to French fries processing due to their low content of TGA (in unpeeled and peeled potatoes). However, Blue Congo variety with blue-fleshed should not be applied to French fries processing, because of high TGA content in raw material and first of all in peeled potatoes flesh. The peeling process of coloured-fleshed potatoes decreased in TGA content on average by about 50 %, cutting process on average by about 53 %, whereas blanching on average by about 58 % compared with the raw material. The highest decrease in TGA content was caused by frying process. The mean values were about 97.5 % in ready-to-eat French fries. In French fries after I and II steps of frying, the ratio α-solanine to α-chaconine was lower (1.0:2.0) than in unpeeled potatoes (1.0:2.3).

Effects of breed, postnatal development, and nutrition on mRNA expression of the FTO gene in porcine muscle and its relationship with intramuscular fat deposition

The effects of breed, development, and nutrition on mRNA expression of the fat mass and obesity-associated gene (FTO) and its relationship with intramuscular fat (IMF) content in porcine muscle (m. longissimus dorsi; m.l.d.) were estimated. Purebred Jinhua, Zhongbai, Yorkshire, Duroc, Duroc &amp;times; Zhongbai (DZ), and Duroc &amp;times; Yorkshire &amp;times; Landrace (DYL) pigs were used to investigate the effect of breed. Pigs weighing 2.5, 10, 20, 40, 60, and 100 kg were selected to study the effects of different stages of development. To study the effect of nutrition, four diets were selected: corn-soybean (CS), CS with 1.2% conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) or 0.05% creatine monohydrate (CMH), and barley-soybean (BS). All eighty animals were slaughtered, and m.l.d. samples were collected to examine FTO mRNA expression and IMF content. Results showed that breed significantly affected FTO mRNA expression and IMF content. FTO mRNA expression in the studied pigs was in the order: Zhongbai and Yorkshire &amp;gt; Duroc and DZ &amp;gt; Jinhua and DYL. The IMF content ordered by breed was Duroc &amp;gt; DZ &amp;gt; DYL &amp;gt; Jinhua &amp;gt; Zhongbai&amp;nbsp;&amp;gt; Yorkshire. Both FTO mRNA expression and IMF content increased with age of the pigs, with the greatest difference seen between 100 kg pigs and all other weights. In the study, none of the four diets had a significant effect (P &amp;gt; 0.05) on FTO mRNA expression or IMF content. The study demonstrated that FTO mRNA expression increased with increasing body weight and was significantly affected by the breed of pigs. The results showed that FTO mRNA expression had an inconsistent correlation with IMF content between breeds and developmental ages. &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;

Nuclear maturation and embryo development of porcine oocytes vitrified by cryotop: Effect of different stages of in vitro maturation

The present study was designed to evaluate the viability, meiotic competence and subsequent development of porcine oocytes vitrified using the cryotop method at different stages of in vitro maturation (IVM). Cumulus–oocyte complexes (COCs) were cultured in IVM medium supplemented with 1mM dibutyryl cAMP (dbcAMP) for 22h and then for an additional 22h without dbcAMP in the medium. Germinal vesicle (GV), germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD), metaphase I (MI), anaphase I/telophase I (AI/TI) and metaphase II (MII) were found to occur predominantly at 0–22, 26, 32, 38 and 44h of IVM, respectively. Oocytes were exposed to cryoprotectant (CPA) or vitrified after different durations of IVM (0, 22, 26, 32, 38 and 44h). After CPA exposure and vitrification, surviving oocytes that were treated before completion of the 44h maturation period were placed back into IVM medium for the remaining maturation period, and matured oocytes were incubated for 2h. CPA treatment did not affect the viability of oocytes matured for 26, 32, 38 or 44h, but significantly decreased survival rate of oocytes matured for 0 or 22h. CPA treatment had no effect on the ability of surviving oocytes to develop to the MII stage regardless of the stage during IVM; however, blastocyst formation following PA was severely lower (P<0.05) than that in the control. At 2h post-warming, the survival rates of oocytes vitrified at 26, 32, 38 and 44h of IVM were similar but were higher (P<0.05) than those of oocytes vitrified at 0 or 22h of IVM. The MII rates of surviving oocytes vitrified at 0 and 38h of IVM did not differ from the control and were higher (P<0.05) than those of oocytes vitrified at 22, 26 or 32h of IVM. After parthenogenetic activation (PA), both cleavage and blastocyst rates of vitrified oocytes matured for 22, 26, 32, 38 and 44h did not differ, but all were lower (P<0.05) than those matured 0h. In conclusion, our data indicate that survival, nuclear maturation and subsequent development of porcine oocytes may be affected by their stage of maturation at the time of vitrification; a higher percentage of blastocyst formation can be obtained from GV oocytes vitrified before the onset of maturation.

Effect of Different Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease and Renal Replacement Therapies on Oxidant-Antioxidant Balance in Uremic Patients

Oxidative stress seems to be involved in the path physiology of cardiovascular complications of chronic kidney disease (CKD). In this study, we determined the effect of different stages of CKD and substitutive therapies on oxidative stress. One hundred sixty-seven patients (age: 44 ± 06 years; male/female: 76/91) with CKD were divided into 6 groups according to the National Kidney Foundation classification. Prooxidant status was assessed by assaying thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, hydroperoxides, and protein carbonyls. Antioxidant defence was performed by analysis of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, vitamin E, Iron, and bilirubin. TBARS and LPO were higher in HD patients compared to other groups (P < 0.001), while protein carbonyls were more increased in PD patients. The antioxidant enzymes were declined already at severe stage of CKD and they were declined notably in HD patients (P < 0.001). Similar observation was found for vitamin E, Fe, and bilirubin where we observed a significant decrease in the majority of study groups, especially in HD patients (P < 0.001). The evolution of CKD was associated with elevated OS. HD accentuates lipid, while PD aggravates protein oxidation. However, the activity of antioxidant enzymes was altered by impaired renal function and by both dialysis treatments.

Advantages and dynamics of urban agglomeration development on Yangtze River Delta

Urban agglomeration on Yangtze River Delta (UA-YRD) had some advantages in the aspects of water, land, ecological environment, location and transportation. Relying on the resource-environment bases and other advantages, UA-YRD has achieved great development. Based on index system and model of comprehensive evaluation, the paper calculates the development level of UA-YRD since 1978. The result shows that from 1978 to 2007, the development level increased year by year at an annual rate of 0.0333, and the process of development could be divided into three stages, i.e. low-speed development stage (1978–1991), rapid development stage (1991–2000), and high-speed development stage (2000–2007). The speeds are 0.0083, 0.0356 and 0.0766, respectively. During the 30-year development, foreign economic activity has the greatest effect on development, followed by transportation, industrial economic activity and telecommunication (in order). Additionally, different driving forces have different effects in different stages. The paper suggests that more attention should be paid to the high-speed development stage and the important driving forces to drive its development. At the same time, the limitation of resource and environment should not be neglected and a long effective mechanism needs to be established to sustain harmonious development among the UA development, resource utilization and environmental protection. Some comparative studies should be carried out urgently to support and promote sustainable development of UA effectively, especially towards evolution, driving forces and braking forces.

Influence of Wine-Grape Skin Hardness on the Kinetics of Anthocyanin Extraction

The main aim of this work was to study in a model, hydroalcoholic solution containing 12% of ethanol and with a pH of 3.20, the kinetics of anthocyanin extraction from Vitis vinifera L. cv. Nebbiolo berries of different skin hardness. This mechanical property was evaluated as the breaking skin force measured by Texture Analysis, a rapid and low-cost analytical technique. Using a TAxT2i Texture Analyzer, a puncture test was carried out on two groups of berries separated according to their density by flotation in order to obtain more homogenous samples and minimize the effect of different stages of ripening of the berries. Among the berries containing 242 ± 8 g/L of reducing sugars in the pulp juice, two groups of berries with different skin hardness were selected: soft (0.26 ± 0.04 N) and hard (0.47 ± 0.05 N). In our experimental conditions, at the end of maceration, the extracts from the higher skin hardness group showed the higher contents of total anthocyanin: +25 mg/L (+9.4%). The anthocyanin profile of extracts, obtained at different extraction times, showed no significant differences among the distribution of different anthocyanins. Only in the early phases of dissolution, did the extracts reveal a dissimilar anthocyanin profile and in the extracts of hard skins higher percentages of cyanidin and peonidin derivatives were present. Additionally, the evolution of skin mechanical properties from veraison to overripe and the influences of biotype on these parameters at harvest are reported in this work.

Comprehensive Analysis of Expressed Proteins in the Different Stages of the Style Development of Self-incompatible ‘Hyuganatsu’ (Citrus tamurana hort. ex Tanaka)

In Citrus, self-incompatibility (SI) regulation is gametophytic, and this phenomenon is an economically critical problem for some Citrus cultivars without high parthenocarpic ability. Few molecular biological studies of SI in Citrus have been performed, and the molecular mechanism of SI has not been clarified. To investigate the effect of different stages of style development on pollen tube behavior, flower buds of self-incompatible ‘Hyuganatsu’ (Citrus tamurana hort. ex Tanaka) were histologically assayed. When the flower buds were observed 168 hours after pollination, pollen tubes in the self-pollinated flower buds 1 and 3 days before anthesis (DBA) were arrested in the upper part of the styles, while those in flower buds self-pollinated 5 DBA reached the base of the styles. These results revealed that SI in ‘Hyuganatsu’ has not yet occurred in the flower buds 5 DBA, but generated in the flower buds 3 DBA. To search SI-related pistil proteins in Citrus, we profiled a number of protein expressions in ‘Hyuganatsu’ styles of 1, 3, and 5 DBA by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. One-hundred thirty-eight protein spots were significantly different in abundance among the three stages, and 17 up-regulated and 26 down-regulated protein spots could be identified. Among the 17 up-regulated proteins, nine up-regulated proteins exhibited the expression pattern of 1 DBA ≥ 3 DBA > 5 DBA, a pattern which reflected the transmission from SC to SI, evaluated by pollen tube growth. BLASTP homology search against the peptide sequences of these proteins was carried out and predicted the proteins related to the maintenance of cell shape, the signaling of pollen tube growth, the flavonol biosynthesis, the responses to various stresses, photosynthesis, and the methionine metabolic process. Among the nine proteins, some may be the SI-related pistil proteins; however, it was not possible to determine the SI-related key protein of the style in Citrus.

National evaluation of the effect of graduated driver licensing laws on teenager fatality and injury crashes

ProblemAutomobile crashes remain a prominent cause of death and injury for teenagers in the United States. While it is generally agreed that graduated drivers licensing (GDL) influences crash rates, it is unclear which components have the strongest effect on any specific types of crashes. MethodWe analyze the relative effect of different stages of GDL on teenage fatal and injury crash risk via a negative binomial generalized linear model with random state effects. Overall, nighttime, and crashes with multiple teenage passengers are considered. ResultsThe strongest effects are seen by 16-year-olds, for which a strict permit stage is associated with a 58% reduction in fatal crash risk over a lenient permit stage. Similar reductions are seen for injury crashes. The intermediate stage, involving nighttime and passenger restrictions, is associated with a 44% reduction in fatalities but has relatively little effect on injury crashes. The strongest effects are generally seen for passenger crashes, followed by nighttime, and then overall crashes. Impact on IndustryThis study identifies stronger relationships between GDL and crash risk than has previously been discovered and captures the relative effects of permit and intermediate licensing restrictions, two high-level components of GDL which differ in intent and implementation.

Psychopharmaka und Fahreignung - Verkehrsmedizinische Grundlagen

Drug therapy plays a crucial role in the treatment of mental disorders. Analogously, driving a motor vehicle plays a key factor in full reintegration into occupational and social life. In a professional assessment of driving ability, the specific drug involved is less important than as comprehensive an evaluation as possible of all traffic-medicine-relevant factors. Among others, the individual's driving history, the impact of the underlying psychiatric condition, effects and side effects in different stages of therapy, possible effects of combination with other drugs, and possible substance use need to be taken into account. Experience shows, however, that a positive appraisal of driving ability is almost always possible thanks to use of an appropriate, safe medication. As only a few specific studies have been conducted, in the individual assessment, the extensive experience and opportunities of a recognized traffic medicine institute should be drawn upon, in order to obtain additional legal coverage and to safeguard the confidentiality of the doctor-patient relationship.

Reducing the critical pressure of detonation initiation in transmission to a semiconfined volume

The classical methods of initiating detonation in a volume of a reacting mixture have been studied in sufficient detail but they are not always suitable for practical purposes. This paper studies the effect of different stages of the deflagration-to-detonation transition in a small-diameter tube on the efficiency of initiation of gaseous detonation in transmission to a semiconfined volume. The methods of initiation described in this paper are important for assessing the risk of fire and explosion in household use and especially in industries.

Effects of ovarian endometrioma on embryo quality

The proportions of good, fair, and poor embryos in 13 women with bilateral endometriomas were compared with those of 39 women without endometriomas and were found to be similar (47.2% vs. 41.1%, 28.3% vs. 32.8%, and 24.3% vs. 26.0%, respectively). Therefore, it appears that the presence of bilateral endometriomas during IVF treatment is not associated with reduced embryo quality.

Effects of Shading at Different Stages After Anthesis on Maize Grain Weight and Quality at Cytology Level

Abstract The objective of the current study is to investigate the effects of different stages of shading after anthesis on grain weight and quality of maize at cytology level. The shading experiments were conducted in the field from 2005 to 2006, with a common maize cultivar (TY2) as the experimental material. Plants were given stress using horizontal shading net and the light intensity was reduced by 55%. Field-grown maize plants were shaded at 1-14 d (SI), 15-28 d (S2), and 29-42 d (S3) after pollination, respectively. Control plants (SO) were grown under natural light. Grain weight, quality, endosperm cell proliferation, cob sugar content, and grain pedicel vascular bundle cross section area were measured. The ultrastructural changes of endosperm cells and endosperm transfer cells were observed after pollination. The result indicated that the grain weight, starch content, endosperm cell number, and volume were declined after shading. On the contrary, the proportion of embryo and endosperm, protein content, and fat content in grain increased. Shading treatments significantly delayed the development of the starch granules and remarkably reduced the endosperm filling status. Among the three treatments, the number of the grain endosperm was the least under shading stress at 1-14 d after pollination. However, the volume of starch granules and the substantiation of endosperm under shading treatment at 15-28 d after pollination were the worst. Compared with the control (natural sunlight without shading), the soluble sugar of maize cob increased significantly, while there was no obvious change in vascular structure of small cluster stalk. The number of protein body in maize endosperm was influenced markedly by low light at different stages after pollination. Low light decreased the volume of the grain endosperm transfer and the cell wall extensions of the basal transfer cells became thinner and shorter under shading treatment than those of the control. Furthermore, the degree of connection and the capacity of the nutrient transport were decreased and the mitochondrion number of the transfer cell was reduced after shading. The change in grain quality after shading was observed due to increase in the proportion of embryo and endosperm. The morphology and functions in endosperm transfer cell and the shortage of energy restricted the nutrient transport greatly with shading at different stages, suggesting that an impeded flux may be one of the important reasons for the reduction of maize grain weight of maize grain at later growth stage under low light condition.

Teratogenicity and fetotoxicity of the antiepileptics

Pregnant women with epilepsy have more problems in maintenance of pregnancy and are under higher risk of spontaneous abort ion or occurrence of congenital fetal malformations. Use of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy is also related to higher risk of congenital fetal malformations. The aim of our study was to determine teratogenicity and fetotoxicity of antiepileptics by performing systematic review of relevant papers. Systematic review was performed using PUBMED and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Original and review papers that relate to teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs were included in the analysis. Fourteen studies were found, out of which there were 7 original papers and 7 review papers. The lowest number of participants in a study was 54 and the highest 3607. Studies followed participants from 5 to 9 years. Antiepileptic drugs were used as monotherapy in 2 studies, while other studies examined both mono- and polytherapy. Doses administered varied from 600 mg (carbamazepine), 100-200 mg (lamotrigine) and 600-1000 mg (valproate), depending on kind of administration (mono or polytherapy). Among all examined antiepileptic drugs, valproate has shown the highest relation to occurrence of any degree of mental retardation or congenital malformation. Risk of congenital malformations was correlated with administration of higher drug doses and the use of polytherapy. Carbamazepine was shown to be the safest drug to use during pregnancy. Literature data do not confirm teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs with certainty. There are not enough studies that compare drug effects in different stages of pregnancy. Limit of presented studies is also lack of information about the degree of epilepsy and eventual comorbidity.